
Agen pelepas monoamina (Bahasa Inggris: monoamine releasing agent, disingkat MRA), atau hanya disebut pelepas monoamina, adalah obat yang menginduksi pelepasan satu atau lebih neurotransmiter monoamina dari neuron presinaptik ke sinapsis, yang menyebabkan peningkatan konsentrasi ekstraseluler neurotransmiter dan karenanya meningkatkan sinyal oleh neurotransmiter tersebut. Neurotransmiter monoamina meliputi serotonin, norepinefrin, dan dopamin; MRA dapat menginduksi pelepasan satu atau lebih neurotransmiter ini.[2][3][4][1][5]
MRA bekerja dengan membalikkan arah transporter monoamina (MAT), termasuk transporter serotonin (SERT), transporter norepinefrin (NET), dan/atau transporter dopamin (DAT), sehingga mendorong pengeluaran neurotransmiter monoamina sitoplasma non-vesikular daripada penyerapan kembali neurotransmiter monoamina sinaptik.[5][6][1][7] Banyak, tetapi tidak semua MRA, juga membalikkan arah transporter monoamina vesikular 2 (VMAT2), sehingga juga menghasilkan pengeluaran neurotransmiter monoamina vesikular ke dalam sitoplasma.[5]
Berbagai kelas obat yang berbeda menimbulkan efeknya di dalam tubuh dan/atau otak melalui pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina. Ini termasuk psikostimulan dan penekan nafsu makan yang bertindak sebagai pelepas dopamin dan norepinefrin seperti amfetamina, metamfetamina, dan fentermina; Agen simpatomimetik yang bertindak sebagai pelepas norepinefrin seperti efedrina dan pseudoefedrina; penekan nafsu makan non-stimulan yang bertindak sebagai pelepas serotonin seperti fenfluramina dan klorfentermina; dan entaktogen yang bertindak sebagai pelepas serotonin dan/atau monoamina lainnya seperti MDMA. Amina kelumit seperti fenetilamina dan triptamina, serta neurotransmiter monoamina itu sendiri, adalah MRA endogen.[2][3][4] Diperkirakan bahwa pelepasan monoamina oleh mediator endogen dapat memainkan peran pengaturan fisiologis.[4]
MRA harus dibedakan dari penghambat pengambilan kembali monoamina (MRI) dan peningkat aktivitas monoaminergik (MAE), yang sama-sama meningkatkan kadar neurotransmiter monoamina sinaptik dan meningkatkan sinyal monoaminergik tetapi bekerja melalui mekanisme yang berbeda.[5][1][8][9]
Jenis dan Selektivitas
MRA dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan monoamina yang terutama dilepaskan, meskipun obat-obatan ini berada pada spektrum:[2][3][4][5]
- Selektif untuk satu neurotransmiter
- Agen pelepas norepinefrin (NRA) (misalnya efedrina, levometamfetamina)
- Agen pelepas dopamin (DRA) (tidak ada agen yang diketahui sangat selektif)
- Agen pelepas serotonin (SRA) (misalnya klorfentermina, MMAI)
- Non-selektif, melepaskan dua atau lebih neurotransmiter
- Agen pelepas norepinefrin–dopamin (NDRA) (misalnya amfetamina, metamfetamina)
- Agen pelepas serotonin–norepinefrin (SNRA) (misalnya fenfluramina, MDAI)
- Agen pelepas serotonin–dopamin (SDRA) (misalnya 5-kloro-αMT, BK-NM-AMT)
- Agen pelepas serotonin–norepinefrin–dopamin (SNDRA) (misalnya MDMA, mefedrona)
Perbedaan selektivitas MRA adalah hasil dari perbedaan afinitas sebagai substrat untuk transporter monoamina, dan dengan demikian kemampuan yang berbeda untuk mengakses neuron monoaminergik dan menginduksi pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina.
Hingga saat ini, belum diketahui adanya DRA selektif. Hal ini karena terbukti sangat sulit untuk memisahkan afinitas DAT dari afinitas NET dan mempertahankan efikasi pelepasan pada saat yang sama.[10] Beberapa SDRA selektif termasuk triptamina, (+)-α-etiltriptamina (αET), 5-kloro-αMT, dan 5-fluoro-αET, telah diketahui. Namun, selain pelepasan serotonin, banyak dari senyawa ini juga bertindak sebagai agonis reseptor serotonin non-selektif, termasuk reseptor serotonin 5-HT2A (dengan efek halusinogenik yang menyertainya), dan beberapa di antaranya diketahui bertindak sebagai penghambat oksidase monoamina.[11][12]
Efek dan penggunaan
MRA dapat menghasilkan efek yang bervariasi tergantung pada selektivitasnya dalam menginduksi pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina yang berbeda.[3]
SRA selektif seperti klorfentermina telah digambarkan sebagai disforik dan lesu.[13][14] SRA yang kurang selektif yang juga merangsang pelepasan dopamin, seperti metilenadioksimetamfetamina (MDMA), digambarkan sebagai lebih nikmat, lebih andal meningkatkan suasana hati dan meningkatkan energi serta kemampuan bersosialisasi.[15] SRA telah digunakan sebagai penekan nafsu makan dan sebagai entaktogen. Obat-obatan ini juga diusulkan untuk digunakan sebagai antidepresan dan anksiolitik yang lebih efektif daripada penghambat pengambilan kembali serotonin selektif (SSRI) karena dapat menghasilkan peningkatan kadar serotonin yang jauh lebih besar dibandingkan SSRI.[16]
DRA, biasanya non-selektif untuk norepinefrin dan dopamin, memiliki efek psikostimulan, menyebabkan peningkatan energi, motivasi, suasana hati yang lebih baik, dan euforia.[17] Variabel lain dapat secara signifikan memengaruhi efek subjektif, seperti laju infus (meningkatkan efek positif DRA) dan efek harapan psikologis.[18] Obat-obatan ini digunakan dalam pengobatan gangguan pemusatan perhatian dan hiperaktivitas (ADHD), sebagai penekan nafsu makan, agen peningkat kewaspadaan, untuk meningkatkan motivasi, dan merupakan obat-obatan untuk penggunaan rekreasional dan penyalahgunaan.
NRA selektif memiliki psikoaktivitas minimal, tetapi seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh efedrina, dapat dibedakan dari plasebo, dan mungkin cenderung disukai.[19] Obat ini juga dapat meningkatkan kinerja,[20] berbeda dengan reboksetin yang hanya merupakan penghambat pengambilan kembali norepinefrin.[21][22] Selain efek sentralnya, NRA menghasilkan efek simpatomimetik perifer seperti peningkatan detak jantung, tekanan darah, dan kekuatan kontraksi jantung. Obat ini digunakan sebagai dekongestan hidung dan bronkodilator, tetapi juga telah digunakan sebagai agen peningkat kewaspadaan, penekan nafsu makan, dan agen antihipotensi. Obat ini juga telah digunakan sebagai obat peningkat kinerja, misalnya dalam olahraga.
Mekanisme kerja
Mekanisme pelepasan monoamina oleh MRA
MRA menginduksi pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina serotonin, norepinefrin, dan/atau dopamin dari neuron monoaminergik di otak dan/atau [[perifer.[23][3][24][25] MRA merupakan substrat dari transporter monoamina yang terkait dengan membran plasma (MAT) termasuk transporter serotonin (SERT), transporter norepinefrin (NET), dan/atau transporter dopamin (DAT), dan memasuki neuron monoaminergik presinaptik melalui transporter ini.[23][3][24][25] Dalam jumlah yang jauh lebih sedikit, MRA yang cukup lipofilik juga dapat berdifusi secara pasif ke dalam neuron monoaminergik.[23][24] Setelah berada di ruang intraseluler neuron, MRA membalikkan arah MAT, serta transporter kation organik 3 (OCT3),[23][26] sehingga memediasi pengeluaran neurotransmiter monoamina sitosolik ke celah sinaptik ekstraseluler daripada penyerapan kembali yang biasa.[23][24] Banyak, meskipun tidak semua MRA,[5][27][catatan 1] juga bekerja pada transporter monoamina vesikular 2 (VMAT2) pada vesikel sinaptik untuk meningkatkan kumpulan neurotransmiter monoamina sitosolik yang tersedia untuk pengeluaran.[23][5][31][24] Namun, MRA masih dapat menginduksi pelepasan monoamina tanpa VMAT2, misalnya dengan melepaskan neurotransmiter sitosolik yang baru disintesis.[23][32][33] Selain menginduksi pelepasan monoamina, MRA bertindak kurang poten sebagai penghambat pengambilan kembali monoamina (MRI).[23][24][2][1] Hal ini disebabkan oleh kompetisi substrat dengan neurotransmiter monoamina untuk MAT[25][6][1] dan/atau induksi internalisasi MAT dan inaktivasi akibatnya.[23][34] Neurotransmiter monoamina yang dilepaskan oleh MRA mengikat dan mengaktifkan reseptor monoamina pada neuron presinaptik dan postsinaptik untuk memfasilitasi neurotransmisi monoaminergik.[25][35] Dengan demikian, MRA dapat digambarkan sebagai agonis reseptor monoamina tidak langsung.[35][1]
Mekanisme di mana MRA menginduksi transpor balik dan efluks MAT kompleks dan belum sepenuhnya dipahami.[23][24][36][37] Proses ini tampaknya bergantung pada sejumlah perubahan intraseluler, termasuk peningkatan ion natrium (Na+) dan ion kalsium (Ca2+), aktivasi protein kinase C (PKC), dan aktivasi protein kinase II alfa (CaMKIIα) yang bergantung pada Ca2+/kalmodulin.[24][23][36][37][38] Aktivasi kinase protein termasuk PKC, CaMKIIα, dan lainnya menghasilkan fosforilasi MAT yang menyebabkan mereka memediasi pengeluaran alih-alih penyerapan kembali.[23][36][39][34] Namun, bagaimana tepatnya MRA menginduksi efek sebelumnya masih belum jelas.[23][24][36][34][37] Sebuah studi yang lebih baru menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan Ca2+ intraseluler, aktivasi PKC, dan CaMKIIα mungkin semuanya tidak diperlukan untuk pelepasan monoamina yang diinduksi MRA, tetapi penelitian lebih lanjut diperlukan.[40]
Reseptor terkait amina kelumit 1 (TAAR1) adalah reseptor untuk amina kelumit seperti β-fenetilamina dan triptamina, serta untuk neurotransmiter monoamina seperti dopamin dan serotonin, dan merupakan target yang diketahui dari banyak MRA, seperti amfetamina dan metamfetamina. TAAR1 adalah reseptor yang sebagian besar intraseluler yang diekspresikan baik di neuron monoaminergik prasinaptik maupun pascasinaptik dan tampaknya banyak terlokalisasi bersama dengan MAT di otak.[41][42] Beberapa studi in vitro telah menemukan bahwa agonisme TAAR1 oleh substrat MAT seperti MRA dapat menghasilkan aktivasi PKC dan dengan demikian menginduksi transpor balik MAT dan pengeluaran monoamina. Dengan demikian, agonisme TAAR1, yang digabungkan dengan aktivitas substrat MAT, dapat memediasi atau berkontribusi pada pelepasan monoamina dari MRA.[42][43] Namun, temuan di bidang ini saling bertentangan, dengan penelitian lain yang tidak mampu mereplikasi hasilnya.[44][45][46][47][48][49] Selain itu, MRA masih dapat menginduksi efusi monoamina tanpa adanya TAAR1 secara in vitro,[50][51][42] MRA yang terkenal seperti amfetamina dan metamfetamina hanya menunjukkan agonisme TAAR1 manusia dengan potensi rendah[52][53][35] yang signifikansi umumnya pada manusia masih belum pasti,[26][54][55][56][57] banyak MRA lain tidak aktif sebagai agonis TAAR1 pada manusia,[52][53][25][26][catatan 2] pelepasan monoamina dan efek perilaku amfetamina tidak hanya dipertahankan tetapi juga meningkat secara substansial pada mencit knockout TAAR1,[44][42] dan pelepasan monoamina serta efek perilaku amfetamina sangat berkurang atau dihilangkan pada mencit dengan ekspresi berlebih TAAR1.[44][59] Selain induksi pelepasan monoamina, agonisme TAAR1, serta mekanisme lain, dapat memediasi internalisasi MAT.[23][60] Internalisasi MAT dapat membatasi kemampuan MRA untuk menginduksi transpor balik MAT dan pengeluaran monoamina.[61][62] Sinyal TAAR1 juga mengaktifkan saluran kalium penyearah ke dalam yang terhubung dengan protein G (GIRK) dan dengan demikian secara kuat menghambat laju tembakan neuron monoaminergik otak dan menekan pelepasan monoamina eksositotik.[63][42][46] Karena mekanisme sebelumnya, agonisme TAAR1 yang kuat oleh MRA yang memiliki aksi ini sebenarnya dapat menghambat diri sendiri dan membatasi efek monoaminergiknya.[56][26][64][49]
Meskipun induksi transpor balik MAT dan akibatnya terjadi efusi monoamina merupakan teori utama tentang bagaimana MRA bekerja, teori alternatif yang lebih baru telah mengusulkan bahwa pada dosis terapeutik amfetamina mungkin sebenarnya tidak bekerja dengan menginduksi transpor balik DAT dan efusi dopamin, tetapi sebaliknya dengan meningkatkan pelepasan dopamin eksositotik dan karenanya dengan meningkatkan sinyal dopaminergik fase daripada tonik. Menurut model ini, transpor balik DAT mungkin hanya relevan pada dosis supraterapeutik dan mungkin lebih terkait dengan toksisitas, misalnya induksi psikosis. Tidak jelas bagaimana amfetamina dapat bekerja untuk meningkatkan pelepasan dopamin eksositotik, dan penelitian lebih lanjut diperlukan untuk mengevaluasi teori ini.[23][65][66]
Selain mekanisme yang memediasi pelepasan monoamina oleh MRA, target lain dari beberapa MRA, seperti reseptor sigma σ1 intraseluler, telah ditemukan menghambat pengeluaran monoamina yang diinduksi MRA melalui interaksi dengan MAT.[67][68] Sebaliknya, aktivasi reseptor sigma σ2 telah ditemukan mempotensiasi pengeluaran dopamin yang diinduksi amfetamina. Mekanisme yang memediasi efek ini tidak diketahui, tetapi telah diperkirakan bahwa hal itu mungkin disebabkan oleh peningkatan kalsium intraseluler dan efek hilir selanjutnya.[69]
Perbedaan dari pelepasan fisiologis dan penghambat pengambilan kembali
Pelepasan neurotransmiter yang diinduksi oleh MRA sangat berbeda dari pelepasan monoamina eksositotik normal, di mana potensial aksi memicu vesikel sinaptik untuk menyatu dengan membran sel dan melepaskan neurotransmiter ke celah sinaptik.[23][3] Sehubungan dengan hal ini, MRA meningkatkan sinyal monoaminergik tonik, sedangkan pelepasan monoamina eksositotik normal melibatkan sinyal monoaminergik fasik.[23]
Peningkatan sinyal monoaminergik oleh MRA juga berbeda dengan peningkatan sinyal monoaminergik oleh MRI.[3][5][23][36] Karena MRI memblokir penyerapan kembali neurotransmiter monoamina dan inaktivasi selanjutnya setelah potensial aksi dan pelepasan eksositotik, MRI lebih memilih untuk meningkatkan sinyal monoaminergik fasik daripada sinyal tonik. Selain itu, autoreseptor monoamina presinaptik dan somatodendritik penghambat, termasuk autoreseptor serotonin 5-HT1A dan 5-HT1B, autoreseptor dopamin D2 dan D3, dan autoreseptor α2-adrenergik, merespons peningkatan kadar neurotransmiter monoamina sinaptik dengan menghambat laju tembakan neuron monoaminergik presinaptik, dan ini secara substansial membatasi efek MRI.[3][5][35] Sebaliknya, MRA tidak bergantung pada potensial aksi untuk menginduksi pelepasan monoamina, dan dengan demikian mampu sebagian besar melewati umpan balik negatif yang dimediasi oleh autoreseptor. Berkaitan dengan hal itu, MRA dapat menginduksi peningkatan maksimal kadar neurotransmiter monoamina yang jauh lebih besar daripada MRI. Misalnya, MRI dapat mencapai peningkatan maksimal kadar monoamina di otak sekitar 5 hingga 10 kali lipat pada hewan, sedangkan MRA dapat menghasilkan peningkatan hingga 10 hingga 50 kali lipat, tanpa batas atas yang jelas.[1][70][71][72][73][3][74] Karena MRA bergantung pada penyerapan oleh MAT untuk menginduksi pelepasan monoamina, mediasi pelepasan monoamina dan efek selanjutnya dapat diblokir oleh MRI.[3][23][24][75]
Persyaratan struktural dan MRA parsial

Terdapat persyaratan ukuran molekul yang terbatas dan relatif kecil agar senyawa dapat bertindak sebagai MRA. Hal ini karena senyawa tersebut harus cukup kecil untuk berfungsi sebagai substrat transporter monoamina dan dengan demikian diangkut ke dalam neuron monoaminergik oleh protein-protein ini, yang pada gilirannya memungkinkan mereka untuk menginduksi pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina. Senyawa dengan fitur kimia yang melampaui batasan ukuran untuk pelepas akan bertindak sebagai pelepas parsial, penghambat pengambilan kembali, atau tidak aktif. Pelepas parsial menunjukkan efikasi maksimal yang berkurang dalam melepaskan neurotransmiter monoamina dibandingkan dengan pelepas penuh konvensional.[5][6][23] Meskipun sebagian besar MRA adalah pelepas penuh, sejumlah pelepas parsial diketahui dan mungkin memiliki sifat atipikal. Contoh pelepas parsial meliputi 3,4-metilenadioksietilamfetamina (MDEA), N-etilnaftilaminopropana (ENAP), 3-trifluorometil-4-klorofenilpiperazina (TFMCPP), para-nitrofenilpiperazina (pNPP), bretisilosin, dan psilosin.[5][6][76][77][78] Mekanisme yang bertanggung jawab atas perbedaan antara pelepas penuh dan pelepas parsial sebagian besar tidak diketahui.[6]
Agen terkait lainnya
"Agonis terbalik" DAT
Penghambat pengambilan kembali dopamin (DRI) telah dikelompokkan menjadi dua jenis, DRI tipikal atau konvensional seperti kokain, WIN-35428 (β-CFT), dan metilfenidat yang menghasilkan efek psikostimulan, euforia, dan penguatan yang kuat, dan DRI atipikal seperti vanokserina (GBR-12909), modafinil, benzatropin, dan bupropion, yang tidak menghasilkan efek tersebut atau memiliki efek yang sangat berkurang.[7][6][5][79] Telah diusulkan bahwa DRI tipikal mungkin sebenarnya tidak bertindak terutama sebagai DRI tetapi lebih sebagai agen pelepasan dopamin (DRA) melalui mekanisme yang berbeda dari DRA tipe substrat konvensional seperti amfetamina. Berbagai bukti yang berbeda mendukung hipotesis ini dan membantu menjelaskan temuan yang membingungkan. Misalnya, DRI tipikal seperti kokain dan metilfenidat dapat secara kuat meningkatkan kadar dopamin otak serupa dengan DRA tipe substrat seperti amfetamina, sedangkan DRI atipikal, yang dipandang sebagai penghambat pengambilan kembali kompetitif sederhana, mencapai peningkatan yang jauh lebih moderat.[7][80][81][82] Dalam model ini, DRI tipikal seperti kokain telah disebut dengan label baru sebagai "agonis terbalik" transporter dopamin (DAT) untuk membedakannya dari DRA tipe substrat konvensional.[7] Teori alternatifnya adalah bahwa DRI tipikal dan DRI atipikal menstabilkan DAT dalam konformasi yang berbeda, dengan DRI tipikal menghasilkan konformasi terbuka yang menghadap ke luar yang menghasilkan efek farmakologis yang berbeda dari DRI atipikal.[6][5][79][83]
Peningkat aktivitas Monoaminergik
Beberapa MRA seperti amfetamina dan metamfetamina, serta amina kelumit seperti fenetilamina, triptamina, dan tiramina, juga merupakan peningkat aktivitas monoaminergik (MAE). Artinya, mereka meningkatkan pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina yang dimediasi potensial aksi (berbeda dengan MRA, yang menginduksi pelepasan monoamina yang tidak terkontrol dan independen dari pelepasan neuron). Mereka biasanya aktif sebagai MAE pada konsentrasi yang jauh lebih rendah daripada konsentrasi yang menginduksi pelepasan monoamina.[8][9][84] Aksi MAE dari MAE dapat dimediasi oleh agonisme TAAR1, yang juga telah terlibat dalam aksi pelepasan monoamina dalam beberapa penelitian.[85][86][87] MAE tanpa disertai aksi pelepasan monoamina poten seperti selegilin (L-deprenil), fenilpropilaminopentana (PPAP), dan benzofuranilpropilaminopentana (BPAP) telah dikembangkan.[8][9]
MRA endogen
Sejumlah senyawa endogen diketahui bertindak sebagai MRA.[4][88][77][11][5] Ini termasuk neurotransmiter monoamina dopamin (DRA), norepinefrin (NRA), dan serotonin (SRA) itu sendiri,[88] serta amina kelumit fenetilamina (NDRA),[5][84][89][90] triptamina (SDRA atau SNDRA yang tidak seimbang),[77][11] dan tiramina (NDRA).[88][4] MRA sintetis sebagian besar didasarkan pada modifikasi struktural senyawa endogen ini, yang paling menonjol termasuk fenetilamina tersubstitusi dan triptamina tersubstitusi.[88][2][3][77][91][92][93]
Pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina secara mandiri, misalnya dalam kasus serotonin, norepinefrin, dan dopamin, disebut sebagai "pelepasan diri". Signifikansi fisiologis dari temuan bahwa neurotransmiter monoamina dapat bertindak sebagai agen pelepasan diri sendiri masih belum jelas. Namun, hal ini dapat menyiratkan bahwa efluks adalah mekanisme pengaturan neurotransmiter umum yang dapat diinduksi oleh substrat transporter apa pun.[4]
Ada kemungkinan bahwa pelepasan diri neurotransmiter monoamina dapat menjadi mekanisme perlindungan.[4][94] Perlu dicatat dalam hal ini bahwa dopamin intraseluler non-vesikular atau sitoplasma bersifat toksik bagi neuron dan bahwa transporter monoamina vesikular 2 (VMAT2) bersifat neuroprotektif dengan mengemas dopamin ini ke dalam vesikel sinaptik.[95][96][97][94] Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, MRA menginduksi pengeluaran neurotransmiter monoamina non-vesikular dan dengan demikian memindahkan neurotransmiter sitoplasma ke ruang ekstraseluler. Di sisi lain, banyak MRA tetapi tidak semuanya juga bertindak sebagai penghambat dan pembalik VMAT2, dan karenanya secara bersamaan menginduksi pelepasan neurotransmiter monoamina vesikular seperti dopamin ke dalam sitoplasma.[5] Induksi pengeluaran VMAT2 oleh MRA tampaknya terkait dengan neurotoksisitas monoaminergiknya.[35][98][29]
Neurotoksisitas monoaminergik
Beberapa MRA telah ditemukan bertindak sebagai neurotoksin monoaminergik dan karenanya menghasilkan kerusakan jangka panjang pada neuron monoaminergik. Contohnya termasuk neurotoksisitas dopaminergik dengan metamfetamina dan neurotoksisitas serotonergik dengan metilenadioksimetamfetamina (MDMA).[99][100] Dosis amfetamina yang cukup tinggi juga dapat menghasilkan neurotoksisitas dopaminergik pada beberapa hewan termasuk primata.[101][102][103][104] Sebaliknya, tinjauan studi pencitraan resonansi magnetik (MRI) pada manusia dengan ADHD menunjukkan bahwa pengobatan jangka panjang dengan dosis terapeutik amfetamina mengurangi kelainan pada struktur dan fungsi otak.[105][106][107][103]
Analog MDMA dengan aktivitas MRA yang dipertahankan tetapi neurotoksisitas serotonergik yang berkurang atau tidak ada, seperti 5,6-metilenadioksi-2-aminoindana (MDAI) dan 5-iodo-2-aminoindana (5-IAI), telah dikembangkan.[28][108] Beberapa obat telah ditemukan dapat menghambat neurotoksisitas MRA pada hewan. Misalnya, penghambat MAO-B selektif selegilin telah ditemukan dapat mencegah neurotoksisitas serotonergik MDMA pada hewan pengerat.[100]
Keluarga kimia
MRA biasanya berupa arilalkilamina. Sejumlah keluarga struktur senyawa yang berbeda telah ditemukan bertindak sebagai MRA. Bentuk struktur MRA yang mungkin dibatasi oleh persyaratan ukuran molekul kecil untuk aktivitas. Molekul yang terlalu besar menjadi penghambat pengambilan kembali monoamina karena tidak dapat lagi diangkut ke dalam neuron oleh transporter monoamina dan menginduksi pelepasan monoamina intraseluler.[5]
Senyawa mirip fenetilamina
- Fenetilamina (2-feniletilamina) (misalnya fenetilamina, tiramina, dopamin, norepinefrin)
- Amfetamina (α-metilfenetilamina) (misalnya amfetamina, metamfetamina, fenfluramina)
- Katinol (β-hidroksiamfetamina) (misalnya fenilpropanolamina, efedrina, pseudoefedrina, katina)
- Katinona (β-ketoamfetamina) (misalnya katinona, metkatinona, mefedrona)
- Fentermina (α-metilamfetamina) (misalnya fentermina, mefentermina, klorfentermina, klortermina)
- Fenilisobutilamina (α-etilfenetilamina) (misalnya fenilisobutilamina, 4-CAB, 4-MAB, bufedrona)
- Amfetamina dengan perluasan cincin
- Benzodioksolilaminopropana (metilenadioksiamfetamina) (misalnya MDA, MDMA, MDEA, metilona)
- Metilenadioksikatinona (misalnya metilona, etilona, butilona)
- Metilenadioksifentermina (misalnya MDPH, MDMPH)
- Benzodioksolilisobutilamina (misalnya BDBT, MBDB, butilona)[109]
- Benzodioksanilaminopropana (etilenadioksiamfetamina) (misalnya EDA, EDMA, EDMC)[110][111][112]
- Benzofuranilaminopropana (misalnya 4-APB, 5-APB, 5-MAPB, 6-APB, 6-MAPB, 5-APDB, 5-MAPDB, 6-APDB, 6-MAPDB, 7-APB, IBF5MAP)[113][114][115]
- Benzofuranilisobutilamina (misalnya 5-MBPB, 6-MBPB)[116]
- Benzotiofenilaminopropana (misalnya 4-APBT, 5-APBT, 5-MAPBT, 6-APBT, 7-APBT)[117]
- Indolilaminopropana (misalnya 5-IT/5-API, 6-IT/6-API)[118]
- Indanilaminopropana (misalnya 5-APDI/IAP, 5-MAPDI)[115][119]
- Naftilaminopropana (misalnya NAP, metamnetamina/MNAP, ENAP, BMAPN)[76][120]
- Tetralinilaminopropana (misalnya 6-APT/TAP)[115]
- Amfetamina lain yang diperluas cincinnya (misalnya ODMA, SeDMA, TDMA[121])
- Benzodioksolilaminopropana (metilenadioksiamfetamina) (misalnya MDA, MDMA, MDEA, metilona)
- Amfetamina (α-metilfenetilamina) (misalnya amfetamina, metamfetamina, fenfluramina)
- Siklopentilaminopropana (misalnya isosiklamina, siklopentamina)[122]
- Sikloheksilaminopropana (misalnya norpropilheksedrina, propilheksedrina)[122]
- Fenilpropilamina (misalnya fenilpropilamina, homo-MDA, homo-MDMA)[123][4][124][125]
- Tiofenilisopropilamina (misalnya tiopropamina, metiopropamina, tiotinona)[126]
- Fenilalkenilamina dan fenilalkinilamina (misalnya fenilbutinamina, fenilbutenamina)[127][128][93][126]
Amina yang menyatu ke dalam cincin
- Fenilalkilpirolidina (misalnya α-PPP, 4-MePPP)[129][130]
- Fenilmorfolina (misalnya fenmetrazina, fendimetrazina)
- Metilenadioksifenilmorfolina (misalnya 3-MDPM)
- Naftilmorfolina (misalnya naftilmorfolina, naftilmetrazina)
- Feniloksazolamina (misalnya aminoreks, 4-metilaminoreks, pemolina)
- Benzilpiperazina (misalnya 1-benzilpiperazina, MBZP)
- Metilenadioksibenzilpiperazina (misalnya MDBZP)
- Benzilpiperidina (misalnya l 4-benzilpiperidina)
- Fenilpiperazina (misalnya 1-fenilpiperazina, mCPP, TFMPP, oMPP, pFPP, pMeOPP)[131]
Rantai alkil menyatu menjadi cincin
- 2-Aminoindana (misalnya 2-aminoindana (2-AI), NM-2-AI, MMAI, MEAI, ETAI, TAI, 5-IAI)[33][132][120]
- 2-Aminotetralin (misalnya 2-aminotetralin, 6-CAT)[132][120]
- Metilenadioksiaminotetralin (misalnya MDAT, MDMAT)[132]
- Kelompok lain yang mungkin (misalnya benzilamina (misalnya MDM1EA),[125] 2-amino-1,2-dihidronaftalena (misalnya 2-ADN),[134][135] aminobenzosikloheptena (misalnya 6-AB, 7-AB)).[120][136]
Seperti triptamina
- Triptamina (2-(3-indolil)etilamina) (misalnya triptamina, serotonin, bufotenin, DMT, psilosin, bretisilosin)[77][11]
- Isotriptamina (2-(1-indolil)etilamina) (misalnya isoAMT)[12]
- Indolizinilaminopropana (misalnya 1ZP2MA, 1Z2MAP1O)[139][140]
- Benzotiofenilaminopropana (misalnya 2-APBT, 3-APBT)[117]
- Benzofuranilaminopropana (misalnya 2-APB, 2-MAPB, 3-APB)[114]
- Kelompok lain yang mungkin (misalnya 2-piroliletilamina, 3-piroliletilamina)[93][126]
Tanpa cincin (alkilamina)
- Alkilamina (misalnya 1,3-DMBA;[60] 1,4-DMAA;[60][141] heptaminol;[142][143] iproheptin; isometeptena;[142] metilheksanamina/1,3-DMAA;[60][35][141][144] oktodrina;[60][145] oenetil;[146][147] tuaminoheptana[60][142][148][143])[146][122]
Galeri struktur keluarga kimia
- ODMA
- TDMA
Profil aktivitas
Aktivitas banyak MRA dalam hal potensi, efikasi, dan selektivitasnya untuk induksi pelepasan monoamina secara in vitro telah dikarakterisasi dalam banyak penelitian di karya tulis ilmiah.[2][71][3][5][149] Penelitian ini terutama dilakukan oleh laboratorium penelitian yang dipimpin oleh Richard B. Rothman dan Michael H. Baumann di National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).[2][71][3][149] Para peneliti ini mengembangkan uji yang mengukur pelepasan monoamina dari sinaptosom otak tikus pada tahun 1999 yang kemudian banyak digunakan.[149][71][88][150][151] Data dengan prosedur ini dari banyak penelitian yang relevan disajikan dalam tabel di bawah ini.[2][3] Laboratorium Rothman dan Baumann menyebut data ini sebagai "Pustaka Fenil Amina", "Pustaka Fenetilamina", "Pustaka Feniletilamina", atau pustaka "PAL", sebuah pustaka besar nilai analog fenetilamina pada transporter monoamina (1.400 senyawa pada tahun 2015), dan telah menetapkan kode nama PAL-# untuk obat-obatan yang termasuk di dalamnya.[152][5][149]
Metode lain untuk mengukur pelepasan monoamina melibatkan penggunaan sel HEK293 manusia yang ditransfeksi dan mengekspresikan transporter monoamina.[51][58][28][153][110] Namun, MRA menunjukkan potensi yang berbeda dan jauh lebih rendah dalam sistem ini dibandingkan dengan sinaptosom otak tikus, dan metode ini jauh lebih jarang digunakan.[51][58][28][153][110] Alasan perbedaan ini tidak sepenuhnya jelas, tetapi mungkin terkait dengan perbedaan organisme, perbedaan metode pengujian pelepasan, dan/atau tidak adanya protein membran neuron penting pada sel HEK293 non-neuronal.[110][50]
| Senyawa | PAL # | 5-HT | NE | DA | Jenis | Kelas | Referensi |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1-Metil-T | PAL-637 | 53,1 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 1-Fenilpiperazina (PP) | Tidak ada data | 880 | 186 | 2.530 | SNRA | Fenilpiperazina | [131] |
| 1ZP2MA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 61,9 | Tidak ada data | Indoliziniletilamina | [139] |
| 2-Aminoindana (2-AI, AI) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 86 | 439 | NDRA | 2-Aminoindana | [33] |
| 2-APBT | Tidak ada data | 8,9 | 21,6 | 38,6 | SNDRA | Aminopropilbenzotiofena | [117] |
| 2-BMC | Tidak ada data | 2.837 | 156 | 650 | NDRA | Katinona | [154] |
| 2-CA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 19,1 | 62,4 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| 2-CMC | Tidak ada data | 2.815 | 93 | 179 | NDRA | Katinona | [154] |
| 2-FA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 24,1 | 38,1 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| 2-FMA | Tidak ada data | ~15.000 | <100 | ~90 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [butuh rujukan] |
| 2-FMC | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | Tidak ada data (85% pada 10 μM) | 48.7 | NDRA | Katinona | [137] |
| 2-FPM | Tidak ada data | 4.808 | 28 | 112 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [155] |
| 2-MA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 37 | 127 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| 2-MeO-A | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 473 | 1.478 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| 2-MeO-MC | Tidak ada data | 7.220 | 339 | 920 | NDRA | Katinona | [154] |
| 2-MMC | Tidak ada data | 347–490 | 53 | 81–97,9 | SNDRA | Katinona | [137][154] |
| 2-MPM | Tidak ada data | 1.758 | 102 | 374 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [156] |
| 2-Fenilmorfolina | PAL-632 | 20260 (31% pada 10 μM) | 79 (96% pada 10 μM) | 86 (98% pada 10 μM) | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [157] |
| 2-TFMeO-MC | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | Tidak ada data (33% pada 10 μM) | >10.000 | Nonaktif | Katinona | [137] |
| 2-TFMMC (2-TFMAP) | Tidak ada data | 8.400–>10.000 | 2200 (69% pada 10 μM) | 8.000–>10.000 | SNDRA | Katinona | [158][137][159][154] |
| 2C-C | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | 100.000 | Nonaktif | Fenetilamina | [109][160] |
| 2C-D | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Fenetilamina | [160] |
| 2C-E | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Fenetilamina | [109][160] |
| 2C-I | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Fenetilamina | [109][160] |
| 2C-T-2 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Fenetilamina | [160] |
| 3-APBT | Tidak ada data | 21,9 | 13,4 | 21,7 | SNDRA | Aminopropilbenzotiofena | [117] |
| 3-BCPC | PAL-586 | 621 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3-BMC | Tidak ada data | 136–137 | 25 | 21–28 | SNDRA | Katinona | [137][161][154] |
| 3-CA | PAL-304 | 120 | 9,4 | 11,8 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [123][4][152][162] |
| 3-CC | Tidak ada data | 567 | 105 | 64 | SNDRA | Katinona | [163][161] |
| 3-CCPC (RTI-6037-39) | PAL-433 | 1.328 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152][164] |
| (–)-3-CCPC | PAL-1122 | 562 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| (+)-3-CCPC | PAL-1123 | 733 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3-CEC | PAL-361 | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3-Cl-4-Me-CPC | PAL-820 | 181 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3′-Cl-5-Me-PM | PAL-738 | 23 (Emax = 96%) | 65 (Emax = 89%) | 58 (Emax = 78%) | SNDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [76][165] |
| 3-CMC (klofedrona) | PAL-434 | 211–410 | 19–54,4 | 26–46,8 | SNDRA | Katinona | [5][137][161][154][152][166] |
| 3-CPC | PAL-363 | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3′-CPM | PAL-594 | 301 | 75 (82% pada 10 μM) | 27 (100% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data | Fenilmorfolina | [165][157] |
| 3-FA | PAL-353 | 1.937 | 16,1 | 24,2 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [167][4] |
| 3-FMC | Tidak ada data | 1460 | Tidak ada data (100% pada 10 μM) | 64,8 | NDRA | Katinona | [137] |
| 3′-FPM | PAL-593 | 1.269–2.558 | 17–30 | 43–60 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [155][157] |
| 3-MA | PAL-314 | 218 | 18,3 | 33,3 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [167][123][4] |
| 3-MCPC | PAL-588 | 1.067 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3-MeO-A | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 58 | 103 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| 3-MeO-CPC | PAL-591 | 1.014 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 3-MeO-MC | Tidak ada data | 306–683 | 111 (68% pada 10 μM) | 109–129 | SNDRA | Katinona | [137][161][154] |
| 3-MeO-PM | PAL-823 | Tidak ada data (78% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data (86% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data (96% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data | Fenilmorfolina | [157] |
| 3-MMC | Tidak ada data | 268–292 | 27 | 28–70,6 | SNDRA | Katinona | [5][137][161][154] |
| 3-MPM | PAL-773 | 5.383 | 509 | 1.321 | SNDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [156] |
| 3-TFMeO-MC | Tidak ada data | 188 | Tidak ada data (79% pada 10 μM) | 729 | SNDRA | Katinona | [137] |
| 3-TFMMC (3-TFMAP) | Tidak ada data | 297–380 | 2700 (78% pada 10 μM) | 610–1290 | SNDRA | Katinona | [158][137][159][154] |
| 3,4-DCCPC | PAL-787 | 356 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 4-APBT | Tidak ada data | 21,2 | 46,2 | 66,6 | SNDRA | Aminopropilbenzotiofena | [117] |
| 4-Benzilpiperidina | Tidak ada data | 5.246 | 41,4 | 109 | NDRA | Benzilpiperidina | [168] |
| 4-BMC (brefedrona) | Tidak ada data | 42,5–60,2 | 100 | 59,4 | SNDRA | Katinona | [169][137][161][154][170][171] |
| 4-CA (PCA) | Tidak ada data | 28,3 | 23,5–26,2 | 42,2–68,5 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [123][4][172][173] |
| 4-CC | Tidak ada data | 128,4 | 85,1 | 221,8 | SNDRA | Katinona | [172] |
| 4-CCPC | PAL-743 | 1.632 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 4-CEA (PCEA) | Tidak ada data | 33,8 | 162,6 | 238 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [172][173] |
| 4-CEC | Tidak ada data | 152,6 | 5.194 | 353,6 | SDRA | Katinona | [172] |
| 4-CMA (PCMA) | Tidak ada data | 29,9 | 36,5 | 54,7 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [172][173] |
| 4-CMC (klefedrona) | Tidak ada data | 71,1–144 | 44–90,9 | 42,2–74,7 | SNDRA | Katinona | [169][137][172][161][154][170][171] |
| 4-Et-PEA | PAL-505 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 2.087 | Tidak ada data | Fenetilamina | [5] |
| 4-FA | PAL-303 | 730–939 | 28–37 | 51,5–200 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [167][109][123][4] |
| 4-Fluoro-T | PAL-551 | 108 | 1.123 | 106 | SDRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 4-FMC (flefedrona) | Tidak ada data | 1290–1.450 | 62 | 83,4–119 | NDRA | Katinona | [169][137][161][170][171] |
| 4-FPM | PAL-635 | 2.403 (88% pada 10 μM) | 285 (100% pada 10 μM) | 529 (95% pada 10 μM) | SNDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [157] |
| 4′-FPM | PAL-748 | 1.895 | 58 | 191 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [155][157] |
| 4-iPr-PEA | PAL-595 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Fenetilamina | [5] |
| 4-MA | PAL-313 | 53,4 | 22,2 | 44,1 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [167][123][4] |
| 4-MAR | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Feniloksazolamina | [153] |
| cis-4-MAR | Tidak ada data | 53,2 | 4,8 | 1,7 | NDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [153][174] |
| 4-MBA | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [175] |
| 4-MCPC | PAL-744 | 667 | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| 4-MEA | Tidak ada data | 102 | 182 | 550 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [175] |
| 4-MeO-MC (metedrona) | Tidak ada data | 120–195 | 111 | 506–881 | SNDRA | Katinona | [169][137][161][154][171] |
| 4-MeO-T | PAL-548 | 4.114 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 4-MMA | Tidak ada data | 67,4 | 66,9 | 41,3 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [175][170] |
| 4-MPA | Tidak ada data | 650 | 752 | Nonaktif | SNRA | Amfetamina | [175] |
| 4-MPEA (4-Me-PEA) | PAL-503 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 271 | Tidak ada data | Fenetilamina | [5] |
| 4-MPM | PAL-747 | 86 | 62 | 227 | SNDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [156][157] |
| 4-MTA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [176][177][178] |
| 4-MTMA | PAL-1063 | 21 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [76] |
| 4-tBu-MC | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | 942 (Emax ≈ 50%) | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [179] |
| 4-TFMeO-MC | Tidak ada data | 118 | Tidak ada data | 7.510 | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [137] |
| 4-TFMMC (4-TFMAP) | Tidak ada data | 190–270 | 900 | 2.700–4.230 | SNRA | Katinona | [180][169][158][159][171][154] |
| 4,4'-DMAR | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | Tidak ada data |
| cis-4,4'-DMAR | Tidak ada data | 17,7–59,9 | 11,8–31,6 | 8,6–24,4 | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [174][181][153] |
| trans-4,4'-DMAR | Tidak ada data | 59,9 | 31,6 | 24,4 | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [181][153] |
| 5-APB | Tidak ada data | 19 | 21 | 31 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [113] |
| 5-APBT | Tidak ada data | 10,3 | 38,4 | 92,8 | SNDRA | APBT | [117] |
| 5-API (5-IT) | PAL-571 | 28–104,8 | 13,3–79 | 12,9–173 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [12][118] |
| 5-Bromo-T | PAL-518 | 75 | >10.000 | 478 | SDRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 5-Kloro-αET | PAL-526 | 33,2 | >10.000 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA | α-Etiltriptamina | [11] |
| 5-Kloro-αMT | PAL-542 | 16,2 | 3.434 | 54,3 | SDRA | α-Metiltriptamina | [11][12] |
| 5-Kloro-T | PAL-441 | 19,1 | >10.000 | 476 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 5-Fluoro-αET | PAL-545 | 36,6 | 5.334 | 150 | SDRA | α-Etiltriptamina | [11] |
| 5-Fluoro-αMT | PAL-544 PAL-212 | 14–19 | 78–126 | 32–37 | SNDRA | α-Metiltriptamina | [12][11][77] |
| 5-Fluoro-T | PAL-284 | 10,1 | 464 | 82,3 | SDRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 5-MABB (5-MBPB) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| (S)-5-MABB | Tidak ada data | 31 | 158 | 210 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| (R)-5-MABB | Tidak ada data | 49 | 850 | Nonaktif | SRA | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| 5-MAPB | Tidak ada data | 64–90 | 24 | 41–459 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [113][183] |
| (S)-5-MAPB | Tidak ada data | 67 | Tidak ada data | 258 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [183] |
| (R)-5-MAPB | Tidak ada data | 184 | Tidak ada data | 1951 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [183] |
| 5-MeO-αMT | Tidak ada data | 460 | 8.900 | 1.500 | SNDRA | α-Metiltriptamina | [109] |
| 5-MeO-DALT | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [109] |
| 5-MeO-DET | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| 5-MeO-DiPT | Tidak ada data | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [109][77] |
| 5-MeO-DMT | Tidak ada data | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [109][77] |
| 5-MeO-DPT | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| 5-MeO-MiPT | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [109][77] |
| 5-MeO-NET | Tidak ada data | 284 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [77] |
| 5-MeO-NiPT | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| 5-MeO-NMT | Tidak ada data | 1.114 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [77] |
| 5-MeO-T | PAL-234 | 2.169 | >10.000 | 11.031 | SDRA | Triptamina | [11][77] |
| 5-Metil-T | PAL-22 | 139 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 6-APB | Tidak ada data | 36 | 14 | 10 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [113] |
| 6-APBT | Tidak ada data | 10,7 | 13,6 | 7,2 | SNDRA | APBT | [117] |
| 6-API (6-IT) | Tidak ada data | 19,9 | 25,6 | 164 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [118] |
| 6-Fluoro-T | PAL-227 | 4,4 | 1.575 | 106 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 6-MABB (6-MBPB) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| (R)-6-MABB | Tidak ada data | 172 | 227 | Nonaktif | SNRA | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| (S)-6-MABB | Tidak ada data | 54 | 77 | 41 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [116][182] |
| 6-MAPB | Tidak ada data | 33 | 14 | 20 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [113] |
| 6-MeO-T | PAL-263 | 53,8 | 465 | 113 | SNDRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 6-Metil-T | PAL-522 | 51,6 | >10.000 | 353 | SDRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 7-APBT | Tidak ada data | 36,9 | 28,5 | 16,8 | SNDRA | APBT | [117] |
| 7-Kloro-T | PAL-532 | 8,03 | 656 | 1.330 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 7-MeO-T | PAL-533 | 44,6 | 5.600 | 2.118 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| 7-Methyl-T | PAL-286 | 23,7 | >10.000 | 3.380 | SRA | Triptamina | [11] |
| α-Etiltriptamina (AET, αET) | PAL-125 | 23,2 | 640 | 232 | SDRA | α-Etiltriptamina | [11] |
| (–)-α-Etiltriptamina | PAL-640 | 54,9 | 3.670 | 654 | SRA | α-Etiltriptamina | [11] |
| (+)-α-Etiltriptamina | PAL-647 | 34,7 | 592 | 57,6 | SDRA | α-Etiltriptamina | [11] |
| α-Me-MC (βk-mefentermina, RAD-081) | Tidak ada data | 12.860 | 153 | 590 | NDRA | Katinona | [184][185][186] |
| α-Metilisotriptamina (isoAMT) | PAL-569 | 177 | 81 | 1.062 | SNRA | Isotriptamina | [12] |
| α-Metiltriptamina (αMT, AMT) | PAL-17 | 21,7–68 | 79–112 | 78,6–180 | SNDRA | α-Metiltriptamina | [109][11][187] |
| βk-NMPEA (FTS-096) | Tidak ada data | >60.000 | 148 | 1860 | NRA | Fenetilamina | [184][185][186] |
| AMAPN | Tidak ada data | 21 | Tidak ada data | 55 | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [137][188] |
| Amfepramon (dietilpropion) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | >10.000 | >10.000 | Bakal obat | Katinona | [189][151] |
| Aminoreks | Tidak ada data | 193–414 | 15,1–26,4 | 9,1–49,4 | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [88][174][4][153][151] |
| Amfetamina (A) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Amfetamina | Tidak ada data |
| Dekstroamfetamina | Tidak ada data | 698–1765 | 6,6–10,2 | 5,8–24,8 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [88][190][4][179][151] |
| Levoamfetamina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 9,5 | 27,7 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [123][4][191][192] |
| APPEA (α-Pr-PEA) | PAL-550 | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [5][152] |
| BDB | Tidak ada data | 180 | 540 | 2.300 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [109] |
| Benzilpiperazina (BZP) | Tidak ada data | 6050–>10.000 | 62–68 | 175–600 | NDRA | Benzilpiperazina | [109][193][3][4][194] |
| BK-NM-AMT | Tidak ada data | 41,3 | Tidak ada data (55% pada 10 μM) | 92,8 | SDRA | α-Metiltriptamina | [137][188][138] |
| BK-5F-NM-AMT | Tidak ada data | 190 | Tidak ada data | 620 | Tidak ada data | α-Metiltriptamina | [195] |
| BK-5Cl-NM-AMT | Tidak ada data | 200 | Tidak ada data | 865 | Tidak ada data | α-Metiltriptamina | [195] |
| BK-5Br-NM-AMT | Tidak ada data | 295 | Tidak ada data | 2.100 | Tidak ada data | α-Metiltriptamina | [195] |
| BMAPN | Tidak ada data | 27 | Tidak ada data (94% pada 10 μM) | 34 | SNDRA | Katinona | [137][188] |
| BMPEA (β-Me-PEA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 126 | 627 | Tidak ada data | Fenetilamina | [196] |
| Bretisilosin (5F-MET, GM-2505) | Tidak ada data | 8,4–15,7 (Emax = 67–71%) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Triptamina | [197][78] |
| Bufotenin (DMS, 5-HO-DMT) | Tidak ada data | 30,5 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [77] |
| Bufedrona (βk-MEPEA) | PAL-429 | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | 411 | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [152] |
| Bupropion (amfebutamona) | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | NDRI | Katinona | [186][163][161] |
| Butilamfetamina (NBA, BA) | PAL-90 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [5] |
| Butilona (βk-MBDB) | Tidak ada data | 330 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA/NDRI | Katinona | [198][199] |
| Katinona (C, βk-AMPH) | Tidak ada data | 6.100–7.595 | 23,6–25,6 | 34,8–83,1 | NDRA | Katinona | [4][137][172] |
| D-Katinona | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 72 | 183,9 | NDRA | Katinona | [200] |
| L-Katinona | Tidak ada data | 2.366–9.267 | 12,4–28 | 18–24,6 | NDRA | Katinona | [201][163][200] |
| Klorfentermina | Tidak ada data | 18,2–30,9 | >10.000 (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | 935–2.650 | SRA | Amfetamina | [88][151] |
| DEPEA (α-Et-EPEA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 209 | 604 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [202] |
| Dibutilona | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | DRI | Katinona | [203] |
| Dietiltriptamina (DET) | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| Diisopropiltriptamina (DiPT) | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| Dimetilamfetamina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 223 | 1.250 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [196] |
| Dimetiltriptamina (DMT) | Tidak ada data | 81–114 (Emax = 81%) | 4.166 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [77][78] |
| Dipropiltriptamina (DPT) | Tidak ada data | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [109][77] |
| DMPP (2,3-DMPP) | PAL-218 | 24–26 (Emax = 85%) | 13,7–56 (Emax = 62%) | 1.207–1.320 (Emax = 66%) | SNRA | Fenilpiperazina | [76][131] |
| DMPPA (β,N,N-TMPEA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 1.337 (Emax = 67%) | Nonaktif | NRA | Fenetilamina | [196] |
| DOC | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [160] |
| DOM | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [204] |
| Dopamin (DA) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | 66,2 | 86,9 | NDRA | Fenetilamina | [88][4] |
| EDMA | Tidak ada data | 117 | 325 | 597 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [110][170] |
| EDMC | Tidak ada data | 347 | 327 | 496 | SNDRA | Katinona | [110][170] |
| ENAP | PAL-1045 | 12 | 137 | 46 | SDRA | Amfetamina | [76] |
| Rasefedrina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Katinol | Tidak ada data |
| D-Efedrina (efedrina) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 43,1–72,4 | 236–1.350 | NDRA | Katinol | [88][4] |
| L-Efedrina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 218 | 2.104 | NRA | Katinol | [88][201] |
| Efilona | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (NDRI) | Katinona | [205] |
| Epinefrin | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Fenetilamina | Tidak ada data |
| Ethcathinone (EC) | Tidak ada data | 1.923–2.118 | 88,3–99,3 | 267,6–>1000 | NRA | Katinona | [189][4][172][179] |
| Etilamfetamina (EA) | PAL-99 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 88,5 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [5] |
| S(+)-Etilamfetamina | Tidak ada data | 333 | 28,8 | 44,1 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [172][173] |
| Etilona (βk-MDEA) | Tidak ada data | 617,4 | 4.251 | 1.122 | SNDRA | Katinona | [170] |
| Eutilona (βk-EBDB) | Tidak ada data | 1.020 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA/NDRI | Katinona | [203] |
| Fenfluramina (3-TFM-EA) | Tidak ada data | 79,3–108 | 739 | >10.000 (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA | Amfetamina | [88][206][207][4] |
| D-Fenfluramina | Tidak ada data | 51,7 | 302 | >10.000 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [88][206] |
| L-Fenfluramina | Tidak ada data | 147 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Amfetamina | [206][72] |
| HHA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 33 | 3.485 | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [4] |
| HHMA | Tidak ada data | 1.729 | 77 | 130 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [4][208] |
| HHMC | Tidak ada data | 14.100 | 110 | 90 | NDRA | Katinona | [209] |
| HMA | Tidak ada data | 897 | 694 | 1.450–3.423 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [4][210][211] |
| HMMA | Tidak ada data | 589–607 | 625 | 607–3.652 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [4][210][211][208] |
| HMMC | Tidak ada data | 7.210 | 6.340 | 5.840 | SNDRA | Katinona | [209] |
| MBDB | Tidak ada data | 540 | 3.300 | >100.000 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [109] |
| mCPP (3-CPP, 3CPP) | Tidak ada data | 28–38,1 | ≥1.400 | 63.000 | SRA | Fenilpiperazina | [109][72][73] |
| MDA | Tidak ada data | 160–162 | 47–108 | 106–190 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [207][4][113] |
| (R)-MDA | Tidak ada data | 310 | 290 | 900 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [207][4] |
| (S)-MDA | Tidak ada data | 100 | 50 | 98,5 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [207][4] |
| MDAI | Tidak ada data | 114 | 117 | 1334 | SNRA | 2-Aminoindana | [33] |
| MDC | Tidak ada data | 966 | 394 | 370 | SNDRA | Katinona | [209] |
| MDEA | PAL-192 | 47 | 2.608 | 622 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [76] |
| (R)-MDEA | PAL-193 | 52 | 651 | 507 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [76] |
| (S)-MDEA | PAL-194 | 465 | Penghambat pengambilan kembali | Penghambat pengambilan kembali | SRA | Amfetamina | [76] |
| MDDMA | Tidak ada data | 588,8 | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | SRA | Amfetamina | [212] |
| MDMA | Tidak ada data | 50–85 | 54–110 | 51–278 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [88][213][118][207][113] |
| (R)-MDMA | Tidak ada data | 340 | 560 | 3.700 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [207][4] |
| (S)-MDMA | Tidak ada data | 74 | 136 | 142 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [207][4] |
| MDMAR | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | Tidak ada data |
| cis-MDMAR | Tidak ada data | 43,9 | 14,8 | 10,2 | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [181] |
| trans-MDMAR | Tidak ada data | 73,4 | 38,9 | 36,2 | SNDRA | Feniloksazolamina | [181] |
| MDPV | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | 13 (Emax = 24%) | 2,3 (Emax = 24%) | NDRI | Feniletilpirolidina | [190][170] |
| MDTMA | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [212] |
| MEAI (5-MeO-AI) | Tidak ada data | 134 | 861 | 2.646 | SNRA | 2-Aminoindana | [33] |
| MEPEA (α-Et-MPEA) | PAL-426 | 4.698 | 58 | 179–225 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [152][202] |
| Mefedrona (4-MMC) | Tidak ada data | 118,3–122 | 58–62,7 | 49,1–51 | SNDRA | Katinona | [213][190][137][154][171] |
| S(–)-Mefedrona | Tidak ada data | 61 | Tidak ada data | 74 | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [179][214] |
| R(+)-Mefedrona | Tidak ada data | 1.470 | Tidak ada data | 31 | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [179][214] |
| Mesokarb | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | >100.000 (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | DRI | Amfetamina | [215] |
| Metamfetamina (MA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Amfetamina | Tidak ada data |
| Dekstrometamfetamina | Tidak ada data | 736–1292 | 12,3–14,3 | 8,5–40,4 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [88][213][4][151] |
| Levometamfetamina | Tidak ada data | 4.640 | 28,5 | 416 | NRA | Amfetamina | [88][4] |
| Metkatinona (MC) | Tidak ada data | 2.592–5.853 | 22–26,1 | 12,5–49,9 | NDRA | Katinona | [4][137][161][154][172] |
| D-Metkatinona | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NRA | Katinona | [186] |
| L-Metkatinona | Tidak ada data | 1.772 | 13,1 | 14,8 | NDRA | Katinona | [201][179] |
| Metiopropamina | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | NDRI | Tiopropamina | [216][217] |
| Metilona (MDMC) | Tidak ada data | 234–708 | 140–270 | 117–220 | SNDRA | Katinona | [213][190][170][203][209] |
| Metilfenidat | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | NDRI | Fenidat | [3][35][218] |
| Metiletiltriptamina (MET) | Tidak ada data | 182,7 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Triptamina | [78] |
| Meksedrona (4-MMC-MeO) | Tidak ada data | 2.525 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA/NDRI | Katinona | [219] |
| MiPT | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | Triptamina | [77] |
| MMAI | Tidak ada data | 31 | 3.101 | >10.000 | SRA | 2-Aminoindana | [33] |
| MNAP (metamnetamina) | PAL-1046 | 13 | 34 | 10 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [76][5] |
| MPPA (BMMPEA, β-Me-NMPEA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 154 | 574 | Tidak ada data | Fenetilamina | [196] |
| Naftilisopropilamina (NAP) | PAL-287 | 3,4 | 11,1 | 12,6 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [220][4] |
| Naftilmetrazina | PAL-704 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | 203 | 111 | NDRA/SRI | Fenilmorfolina | [157] |
| Naftilmorfolina | PAL-678 | Tidak ada data (92% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data (88% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data (79% pada 10 μM) | Tidak ada data | Fenilmorfolina | [157] |
| NET (NETP; N-Et-T) | PAL-536 | 18,6 | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA | Triptamina | [11][77] |
| NiPT | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | Nonaktif | SRI | Triptamina | [77] |
| NMT | PAL-152 | 22,4 | 733 | 321 | SRA | Triptamina | [11][77] |
| Norefedrina (fenilpropanolamina) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Katinol | Tidak ada data |
| D-Norefedrina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 42,1 | 302 | NDRA | Katinol | [201] |
| L-Norefedrina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 137 | 1.371 | NRA | Katinol | [201] |
| Norepinefrina (NE) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 164 | 869 | NDRA | Fenetilamina | [88][4] |
| Norfenfluramina (3-TFMA) | Tidak ada data | 104 | 168–170 | 1.900–1.925 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [206][207] |
| (+)-Norfenfluramina | Tidak ada data | 59,3 | 72,7 | 924 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [206] |
| (–)-Norfenfluramina | Tidak ada data | 287 | 474 | >10.000 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [206] |
| Normefedrona (4-MC) | Tidak ada data | 210 | 100 | 220 | SNDRA | Katinona | [221][200][179] |
| R(+)-Normefedrona | Tidak ada data | 179 | 89 | 150 | SNDRA | Katinona | [179][200] |
| S(–)-Normefedrona | Tidak ada data | 1.592 | 115 | 391 | NDRA | Katinona | [179][200] |
| Norpropilheksedrina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Sikloheksiletilamina | Tidak ada data |
| Norpseudoefedrina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Katinol | Tidak ada data |
| D-Norpseudoefedrina (katina) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 15 | 68,3 | NDRA | Katinol | [201] |
| L-Norpseudoefedrina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 30,1 | 294 | NDRA | Katinol | [201] |
| ODMA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [121] |
| oMPP (2-MPP) | PAL-169 | 175 | 39,1 | 296–542 | SNDRA | Fenilpiperazina | [222][5][131] |
| PMA (4-MeO-A) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 166 | 867 | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [4][136][178] |
| PMMA (4-MeO-MA) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [178] |
| (S)-PMMA | Tidak ada data | 41 | 147 | 1.000 | SNRA | Amfetamina | [180][223][136] |
| (R)-PMMA | Tidak ada data | 134 | >14.000 | 1.600 | SRA | Amfetamina | [180][223][136] |
| Pentilona | Tidak ada data | 476–1030 (Emax ≈ 50%) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (penghambat pengambilan kembali) | SRA/NDRI | Katinona | [198][203][205] |
| Fenasilamina (βk-PEA) | PAL-27 | >10.000 | Tidak ada data (96% pada 10 μM) | 208 | NDRA | Fenetilamina | [5][137][179] |
| Fendimetrazina | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >10.000 | >10.000 | Bakal obat | Fenilmorfolina | [224][4][151] |
| Fenetilamina (PEA) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 10,9 | 39,5 | NDRA | Fenetilamina | [5][123][4] |
| Fenmetrazina (PM) | PAL-55 | 7765–>10.000 | 29–50,4 | 70–131 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [224][4][156][157] |
| (+)-Fenmetrazina | Tidak ada data | 3.246 | 37,5 | 87,4 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [224] |
| (–)-Fenmetrazina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 62,9 | 415 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [224] |
| Fentermina (P, PH) | Tidak ada data | 2.575–3.511 | 28,8–39,4 | 262 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [88][4][151] |
| Fenilalaninol | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | Tidak ada data |
| D-Fenilalaninol | PAL-329 | >10.000 | 106 | 1.355 | NRA | Amfetamina | [222] |
| Fenilbutenamina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Fenilbutenamina | Tidak ada data |
| (3E)-Fenilbutenamina | PAL-881 | >10.000 | 308 | 666 | NDRA | Fenilbutenamina | [127][128] |
| (3Z)-Fenilbutenamina | PAL-893 | >10.000 | 301 | 1.114 | NDRA | Fenilbutenamina | [127][128] |
| Fenilbutilamina | PAL-874 | >10.000 | 305 | 688 | NDRA | Fenilbutilamina | [76] |
| Fenilisobutilamina (α-Et-PEA, AEPEA) | Tidak ada data | 4.698 | 80 | 225–273 | NDRA | Amfetamina | [5][152][162][202] |
| Fenilpropilamina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | 222 | 1.491 | NDRA | Fenilpropilamina | [123][4] |
| pMeOPP (4-MeOPP) | Tidak ada data | 3.200 | 440–1.500 | 6.300–11.000 | SNRA | Fenilpiperazina | [109][131] |
| pMPP (4-MPP) | PAL-233 | 220 | >10.000 | >20.000 | SRA | Fenilpiperazina | [131][5] |
| pNPP (4-NPP) | PAL-175 | 19–43 (Emax = 57%) | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Fenilpiperazina | [76][131] |
| Propilamfetamina (PA) | PAL-424 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Penghambat pengambilan kembali (1.013) | Tidak ada data | Amfetamina | [5] |
| Propilkatinona (PC) | PAL-359 | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif | Tidak ada data | Katinona | [5][179] |
| Propilheksedrina | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Sikloheksiletilamina | Tidak ada data |
| Propilona | Tidak ada data | 3.128 | Nonaktif (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | 975,9 | SDRA | Katinona | [170] |
| Pseudoefedrina (rasemat) | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | NDRA | Katinol | Tidak ada data |
| D-Pseudoefedrina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 4.092 | 9.125 | NDRA | Katinol | [201] |
| L-Pseudoefedrina (pseudoefedrina) | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 224 | 1.988 | NRA | Katinol | [201] |
| Pseudofenmetrazina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 514 | Nonaktif (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | NRA/DRI | Fenilmorfolina | [224] |
| (+)-Pseudofenmetrazina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 349 | 1457 | NDRA | Fenilmorfolina | [224] |
| (–)-Pseudofenmetrazina | Tidak ada data | >10.000 | 2.511 | Nonaktif (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | NRA/DRI | Fenilmorfolina | [224] |
| Psilosin | PAL-153 | 561 (Emax = 54%) | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Triptamina | [76][77] |
| SeDMA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [121] |
| Serotonin (5-HT) | Tidak ada data | 44,4 | >10000 (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | ≥1960 | SRA | Triptamina | [88][4] |
| TDMA | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | Tidak ada data | SNDRA | Amfetamina | [121] |
| TFMCPP (3-TFM-4-C-PP) | PAL-179 | 33 (Emax = 66%) | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Fenilpiperazina | [76] |
| TFMPP (3-TFMPP) | Tidak ada data | 121 | >10.000 | >10.000 | SRA | Fenilpiperazina | [193][194][4] |
| TMA (3,4,5-TMeO-A) | Tidak ada data | 16.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | SRA | Amfetamina | [109] |
| TMA-2 (2,4,5-TMeO-A) | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [109] |
| TMA-6 (2,4,6-TMeO-A) | Tidak ada data | >100.000 | >100.000 | >100.000 | Nonaktif | Amfetamina | [109] |
| Tramadol | Tidak ada data | Nonaktif (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif (Penghambat pengambilan kembali) | Nonaktif | SNRI | Tidak ada data | [3] |
| Triptamina (T) | PAL-235 | 32,6 | 716 | 164 | SDRA | Triptamina | [77][11] |
| Tiramina | Tidak ada data | 2775 | 40,6 | 119 | NDRA | Fenetilamina | [88][4] |
| Catatan: (1) Semakin kecil nilainya, semakin kuat zat tersebut melepaskan neurotransmiter. (2) Nilai-nilai ini berasal dari pengujian yang dilakukan menggunakan sinaptosom otak tikus. Nilai dari metode lain untuk mengukur pelepasan monoamina, seperti sel HEK293 yang ditransfeksi dengan transporter monoamina, tidak sepenuhnya analog dengan sel neuron dan menghasilkan potensi yang jauh berbeda dan lebih rendah. Akibatnya, nilai-nilai tersebut tidak disertakan dalam tabel ini. | |||||||
Selain potensi MRA dalam hal aktivitas MRA-nya, data tentang afinitas (Ki) berbagai MRA terhadap transporter monoamina (MAT) dan potensinya (IC50) dalam bertindak sebagai penghambat pengambilan kembali monoamina (MRI) telah dipublikasikan.[2][88][224][225][206][190][212][188][172][175][226][227][116][158][219][163][117][228][131][156] Aktivitas MRA pada transporter monoamina vesikular 2 (VMAT2) juga telah dipublikasikan.[27]
Catatan
- ↑ MRA yang tidak aktif pada VMAT2 meliputi fentermina, fenmetrazina, dan benzilpiperazina (BZP).[5][27] Senyawa lain, termasuk katinona seperti mefedrona, metkatinona, dan metilona, juga hanya menunjukkan aktivitas VMAT2 yang lemah (misalnya, ~10 kali lebih lemah dibandingkan senyawa amfetamina yang bersesuaian).[28][29][30]
- ↑ MRA yang tidak aktif pada TAAR1 manusia meliputi sebagian besar katinona (misalnya metkatinona, mefedrona, flefedrona, dan brefedrona), efedrina, 4-metilamfetamina (4-MA), para-metoksiamfetamina (PMA), 4-metiltioamfetamina (4-MTA), MDMA, MDEA, MBDB, 5-APDB, 5-MAPDB, turunan 4-metilaminoreks, meta-klorofenilpiperazina (mCPP), TFMPP, dan metilheksanamina (DMAA).[52][53][26][50][58]
Referensi
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rothman RB, Baumann MH (Oktober 2003). "Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs". European Journal of Pharmacology. 479 (1–3): 23–40. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2003.08.054. PMID 14612135.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Rothman RB, Baumann MH (2006). "Therapeutic potential of monoamine transporter substrates". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 6 (17): 1845–1859. doi:10.2174/156802606778249766. PMID 17017961.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Blough B (Juli 2008). "Dopamine-releasing agents" (PDF). Dalam Trudell ML, Izenwasser S (ed.). Dopamine Transporters: Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology. Hoboken [NJ]: Wiley. hlm. 305–320. ISBN 978-0-470-11790-3. OCLC 181862653. OL 18589888W.
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Reith ME, Blough BE, Hong WC, Jones KT, Schmitt KC, Baumann MH, et al. (Februari 2015). "Behavioral, biological, and chemical perspectives on atypical agents targeting the dopamine transporter". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 147: 1–19. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.005. PMC 4297708. PMID 25548026. Converging lines of evidence have solidified the notion that DA releasers are substrates of the transporter and once translocated, they reverse the normal direction of transporter flux to evoke release of endogenous neurotransmitters. The nature of this reversal is not well understood, but the entire process is primarily transporter-dependent and requires elevated intracellular sodium concentrations, phosphorylation of DAT, and possible involvement of transporter oligomers (Khoshbouei et al., 2003, 2004; Sitte and Freissmuth, 2010). [...] A library of approximately 1400 phenethylamine compounds (PAL compounds) has been screened using these protocols. Among the active compounds, the smaller DAT ligands were found to be DA releasers while the sterically larger compounds were DAT uptake inhibitors. [...] Generic pharmacophore for biogenic amine transporter ligands. Note that transportable substrate ligands exhibit size constraints defined by the red circle. Functional groups attached to the nitrogen, α-carbon or phenyl ring that extend beyond the "edge" of the pharmacophore will generate partial substrates, transporter blockers or be inactive. [...] phenmetrazine was found to be completely inactive at VMAT2 indicating that a direct interaction of the releaser with VMAT2 is not required for inducing neurotransmitter efflux into the extracellular space (Partilla et al., 2006). Phentermine and benzylpiperazine were also found in the same study to lack VMAT2 activity (Table 5).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Schmitt KC, Rothman RB, Reith ME (Juli 2013). "Nonclassical pharmacology of the dopamine transporter: atypical inhibitors, allosteric modulators, and partial substrates". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 346 (1): 2–10. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.191056. PMC 3684841. PMID 23568856.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Heal DJ, Gosden J, Smith SL (Desember 2014). "Dopamine reuptake transporter (DAT) "inverse agonism"--a novel hypothesis to explain the enigmatic pharmacology of cocaine". Neuropharmacology. 87: 19–40. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.06.012. PMID 24953830.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Shimazu S, Miklya I (Mei 2004). "Pharmacological studies with endogenous enhancer substances: beta-phenylethylamine, tryptamine, and their synthetic derivatives". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 28 (3): 421–427. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.11.016. PMID 15093948. S2CID 37564231.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Knoll J (Agustus 2003). "Enhancer regulation/endogenous and synthetic enhancer compounds: a neurochemical concept of the innate and acquired drives". Neurochemical Research. 28 (8): 1275–1297. doi:10.1023/a:1024224311289. PMID 12834268.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH (Januari 2007). "Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions". The AAPS Journal. 9 (1): E1-10. doi:10.1208/aapsj0901001. PMC 2751297. PMID 17408232.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Blough BE, Landavazo A, Partilla JS, Decker AM, Page KM, Baumann MH, et al. (Oktober 2014). "Alpha-ethyltryptamines as dual dopamine-serotonin releasers". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 24 (19): 4754–4758. doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.062. PMC 4211607. PMID 25193229.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Banks ML, Bauer CT, Blough BE, Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, et al. (Juni 2014). "Abuse-related effects of dual dopamine/serotonin releasers with varying potency to release norepinephrine in male rats and rhesus monkeys". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 22 (3): 274–284. doi:10.1037/a0036595. PMC 4067459. PMID 24796848.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Brust JC (2004). Neurological Aspects of Substance Abuse. Butterworth-Heinemann. hlm. 117–. ISBN 978-0-7506-7313-6.
- ↑ Competitive problems in the drug industry: hearings before Subcommittee on Monopoly and Anticompetitive Activities of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, Ninetieth Congress, first session. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1976. hlm. 2–.
- ↑ Parrott AC, Stuart M (1 September 1997). "Ecstasy (MDMA), amphetamine, and LSD: comparative mood profiles in recreational polydrug users". Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental (dalam bahasa Inggris). 12 (5): 501–504. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.515.2896. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1077(199709/10)12:5<501::aid-hup913>3.3.co;2-m. ISSN 1099-1077.
{{cite journal}}: Kutipan menggunakan parameter usang|citeseerx=Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Scorza C, Silveira R, Nichols DE, Reyes-Parada M (Juli 1999). "Effects of 5-HT-releasing agents on the extracellullar hippocampal 5-HT of rats. Implications for the development of novel antidepressants with a short onset of action". Neuropharmacology. 38 (7): 1055–1061. doi:10.1016/s0028-3908(99)00023-4. PMID 10428424.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Morean ME, de Wit H, King AC, Sofuoglu M, Rueger SY, O'Malley SS (Mei 2013). "The drug effects questionnaire: psychometric support across three drug types". Psychopharmacology. 227 (1): 177–192. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2954-z. PMC 3624068. PMID 23271193.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Nelson RA, Boyd SJ, Ziegelstein RC, Herning R, Cadet JL, Henningfield JE, et al. (Maret 2006). "Effect of rate of administration on subjective and physiological effects of intravenous cocaine in humans". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 82 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.08.004. PMID 16144747.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Berlin I, Warot D, Aymard G, Acquaviva E, Legrand M, Labarthe B, et al. (September 2001). "Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of single nasal (5 mg and 10 mg) and oral (50 mg) doses of ephedrine in healthy subjects". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 57 (6–7): 447–455. doi:10.1007/s002280100317. PMID 11699608. S2CID 12410591.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Powers ME (Oktober 2001). "Ephedra and its application to sport performance: another concern for the athletic trainer?". Journal of Athletic Training. 36 (4): 420–424. PMC 155439. PMID 16558668.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Meeusen R, Watson P, Hasegawa H, Roelands B, Piacentini MF (1 Januari 2006). "Central fatigue: the serotonin hypothesis and beyond". Sports Medicine. 36 (10): 881–909. doi:10.2165/00007256-200636100-00006. PMID 17004850. S2CID 5178189.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Roelands B, Meeusen R (Maret 2010). "Alterations in central fatigue by pharmacological manipulations of neurotransmitters in normal and high ambient temperature". Sports Medicine. 40 (3): 229–246. doi:10.2165/11533670-000000000-00000. PMID 20199121. S2CID 25717280.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Reith ME, Gnegy ME (2020). "Molecular Mechanisms of Amphetamines". Substance Use Disorders. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 258. hlm. 265–297. doi:10.1007/164_2019_251. ISBN 978-3-030-33678-3. PMID 31286212. Despite the knowledge that amphetamine is a substrate for the DAT and NET, questions still remain as to the physiological mechanism of amphetamine action. [...] At lower doses, amphetamine preferentially releases a newly synthesized pool of DA. [...] DA stores will not be depleted by the AMPT in these short time frames, leading to the conclusion that newly synthesized DA is a principal substrate for amphetamine-stimulated DA efflux. [...] Controversy has surrounded the role of VMAT2 and synaptic vesicles in the mechanism of amphetamine action. [...] Undoubtedly vesicles contribute strongly to the maximal DA released by amphetamine, although VMAT2 is not absolutely required for amphetamine to release DA from nerve terminals (Pifl et al. 1995; Fon et al. 1997; Wang et al. 1997; Patel et al. 2003). [...] Recently, a new model of amphetamine action has been formulated that proposes that amphetamine elevates tonic DA (non-exocytotic) signaling through reverse transport and depleting vesicular stores, but activates phasic DA signaling by enhancing vesicular DA release from the readily releasable pool (Covey et al. 2013). These conclusions were drawn from experiments using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in either freely moving or anesthetized rats (Avelar et al. 2013; Daberkow et al. 2013). Again, one must strongly consider the dose of amphetamine in interpretation of these actions (Calipari and Ferris 2013).
{{cite book}}:|journal=diabaikan - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A (April 2005). "Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review". Prog Neurobiol. 75 (6): 406–433. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003. PMID 15955613. While the sine qua non property of AMPH at monoamine transporters is the promotion of monoamine release via reverse transport, there are yet profound mysteries in understanding how this works. It is additionally clear that AMPH is an uptake blocker as well as a releaser, and differentiating between elevating extracellular monoamines by reverse transport or uptake blockade can be difficult. Of course, the many AMPH derivatives and different transporters maintain different combinatorial properties, an important topic beyond the range of this article. [...] The mechanism of how reverse transport occurs is unknown, and a very old issue of how reserpine can inhibit uptake but not halt reverse transport remains opaque.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Sitte HH, Freissmuth M (Januari 2015). "Amphetamines, new psychoactive drugs and the monoamine transporter cycle". Trends Pharmacol Sci. 36 (1): 41–50. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2014.11.006. PMC 4502921. PMID 25542076. [...] most amphetamines are [monoamine transporter] substrates, which pervert the relay to elicit efflux of monoamines into the synaptic cleft. However, some amphetamines act as transporter inhibitors. [...] Amphetamines also bind to the trace amine receptors TAR1, [...] TAR1 is not activated by all psychoactive amphetamines (p-chloroamphetamine, for instance, is inactive); stimulation of TAR1 actually reduces dopamine release and thus decreases sensitivity to amphetamine [18,19]. [...] amphetamines are taken up by plasma-membrane monoamine transporters as exogenous substrates [31]. Accordingly, they inhibit the physiological monoamine reuptake in a competitive manner [36]. As a consequence of both amphetamine-induced reverse transport and inhibition of reuptake, the synaptic monoamine concentration increases, which in turn activates post- and presynaptic receptors [37]. The activation of postsynaptic receptors propagates the signal and contributes to the biological response. Stimulation of presynaptic autoreceptors decreases the quantal release of monoamines upon excitatory inputs; [...]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 Kuropka P, Zawadzki M, Szpot P (Mei 2023). "A narrative review of the neuropharmacology of synthetic cathinones-Popular alternatives to classical drugs of abuse". Hum Psychopharmacol. 38 (3) e2866. doi:10.1002/hup.2866. PMID 36866677. An interesting neurochemical issue is the interaction between compounds acting as blockers and substrates. [...] Substrates (e.g. mephedrone) use MAT proteins to release neurotransmitters, while inhibitors (e.g. [MDPV]) prevent the transport of any compounds through MATs. It follows that simultaneous use of a substrate and a blocker should result in an antagonistic mechanism that lowers the mutual potency. Paradoxically, MDPV and mephedrone occur together in mixtures, and in addition they reinforce each other's effects, resulting in very strong stimulation. Simultaneous use of both SCs is reported by users, and studies in rodents involving simultaneous administration of the drugs have shown a significant increase in locomotor activity and additive effect compared to administering these drugs alone (Allen et al., 2019; Benturquia et al., 2019). [...] The explanation for this phenomenon can be found in the action of organic cation transporter (OCT) proteins. OCTs are a family of proteins responsible for endothelial transport of small, organic, hydrophilic, and positively charged molecules, including neurotransmitters and xenobiotics (Couroussé & Gautron, 2015). OCT3 is a protein present in the dopaminergic regions of the central nervous system, where it promotes DA reuptake when it is inhibited for high affinity transporters (DAT) (Couroussé & Gautron, 2015). Monoamines can also be released by OCTs. [...] Ex vivo studies on superior cervical ganglia cells enriched in NET and OCT3 showed that in the presence of MDPV blocking MAT proteins, mephedrone causes neurotransmitter efflux through OCT3, which is insensitive to the inhibitory effects of MDPV. The release of monoamines through OCT3, a low‐affinity transporter, presumably explains the paradoxical synergistic effects of inhibitors and substrates (Mayer et al., 2019). [...] Another feature that distinguishes [synthetic cathinones (SCs)] from amphetamines is their negligible interaction with the trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). Activation of this receptor reduces the activity of dopaminergic neurones, thereby reducing psychostimulatory effects and addictive potential (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2016). Amphetamines are potent agonists of this receptor, making them likely to self‐inhibit their stimulating effects. In contrast, SCs show negligible activity towards TAAR1 (Kolaczynska et al., 2021; Rickli et al., 2015; Simmler et al., 2014, 2016). [...] It is worth noting, however, that for TAAR1 there is considerable species variability in its interaction with ligands, and it is possible that the in vitro activity of [rodent TAAR1 agonists] may not translate into activity in the human body (Simmler et al., 2016). The lack of self‐regulation by TAAR1 may partly explain the higher addictive potential of SCs compared to amphetamines (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2013).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Partilla JS, Dempsey AG, Nagpal AS, Blough BE, Baumann MH, Rothman RB (Oktober 2006). "Interaction of amphetamines and related compounds at the vesicular monoamine transporter". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 319 (1): 237–246. doi:10.1124/jpet.106.103622. PMID 16835371. A number of test drugs displayed no activity in the [3H]dopamine uptake inhibition assay (Table 1). For example, (+)- phenmetrazine and (–)-phenmetrazine, the major metabolites of phendimetrazine (Rothman et al., 2002), were essentially inactive. [...] In contrast, other amphetamine-type agents, such as phentermine, phenmetrazine, and 1-benzylpiperazine, are potent releasers of neuronal dopamine (Baumann et al., 2000, 2005; Rothman et al., 2002), but they are inactive at VMAT2. Agents such as these may prove to be valuable control compounds for determining the importance of vesicular release for the in vivo actions of amphetamine-type agents.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Oeri HE (Mei 2021). "Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy". J Psychopharmacol. 35 (5): 512–536. doi:10.1177/0269881120920420. PMC 8155739. PMID 32909493.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Pifl C, Reither H, Hornykiewicz O (Mei 2015). "The profile of mephedrone on human monoamine transporters differs from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine primarily by lower potency at the vesicular monoamine transporter". Eur J Pharmacol. 755: 119–126. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.004. PMID 25771452.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Cozzi NV, Sievert MK, Shulgin AT, Jacob P, Ruoho AE (September 1999). "Inhibition of plasma membrane monoamine transporters by beta-ketoamphetamines". Eur J Pharmacol. 381 (1): 63–69. doi:10.1016/s0014-2999(99)00538-5. PMID 10528135.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Wimalasena K (Juli 2011). "Vesicular monoamine transporters: structure-function, pharmacology, and medicinal chemistry". Med Res Rev. 31 (4): 483–519. doi:10.1002/med.20187. PMC 3019297. PMID 20135628.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Simmler LD (2018). "Monoamine Transporter and Receptor Interaction Profiles of Synthetic Cathinones". Synthetic Cathinones. Current Topics in Neurotoxicity. Vol. 12. Cham: Springer International Publishing. hlm. 97–115. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78707-7_6. ISBN 978-3-319-78706-0. While the determination of drug effects at the isolated target (i.e., DAT, NET, and SERT) can characterize the direct drug action at the target protein, other physiological components can also contribute significantly to the overall effect of the drug. It has been proposed that transporter-mediated, drug-induced efflux of neurotransmitter occurs through effects on the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), depleting neurotransmitter from the vesicles into the cytosol (Nickell et al. 2014). Accordingly, full assessment of release would require testing the effects of a drug on the membrane transporters (SERT, DAT, and NET) and the effects of a drug at VMAT2. Alternatively, a more physiological system, such as synaptosomes or brain slices, could be used. However, reverse transport can also occur in cell lines that only express the plasma membrane transporters but not VMAT2 (Eshleman et al. 2013; Scholze et al. 2000) and in synaptosomes when VMAT2 is inhibited (Rothman et al. 2001).
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Halberstadt AL, Brandt SD, Walther D, Baumann MH (Maret 2019). "2-Aminoindan and its ring-substituted derivatives interact with plasma membrane monoamine transporters and α2-adrenergic receptors". Psychopharmacology (Berl). 236 (3): 989–999. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05207-1. PMC 6848746. PMID 30904940. In contrast to assay systems involving non-neuronal cells transfected with transporter proteins, synaptosomes possess all of the cellular machinery necessary for neurotransmitter synthesis, release, metabolism, and reuptake. Synaptosomes, however, do not model all of the effects of amphetamine-type agents because the use of reserpine removes any contribution of the vesicular monoamine transporter VMAT2 (SLC18A2) to the release process. In addition to acting as a substrate for plasma membrane monoamine transporters, amphetamine also binds to VMAT, resulting in the redistribution of monoamines from vesicular stores to the cytoplasm (Sulzer et al. 1995; Partilla et al. 2006; Freyberg et al. 2016). Although transporter substrates can induce monoamine release in the absence of VMAT binding (Fon et al. 1997), it is important to recognize that 2-aminoindans may have effects in intact nerve terminals that are not fully replicated in synaptosomes. Follow-up studies will be conducted to evaluate whether 2-aminoindans are capable of interacting with VMAT.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Sulzer D, Cragg SJ, Rice ME (Agustus 2016). "Striatal dopamine neurotransmission: regulation of release and uptake". Basal Ganglia. 6 (3): 123–148. doi:10.1016/j.baga.2016.02.001. PMC 4850498. PMID 27141430. 2.2.1. DAT regulation by psychostimulants [...] Considerable evidence supports a role for DAT substrates, like amphetamine, in inducing DAT internalization in vivo and in vitro, thus decreasing DA uptake [390–395]. [...] While several kinases are involved in the regulation of DAT, PKC is by far the most thoroughly investigated [388,403]. PKC activation induces DAT internalization [393,404–406] although the mechanism of PKC activation by DAT substrates remains largely unknown [388,389,403,407,408]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Docherty JR, Alsufyani HA (Agustus 2021). "Pharmacology of Drugs Used as Stimulants". J Clin Pharmacol. 61 Suppl 2: S53–S69. doi:10.1002/jcph.1918. PMID 34396557. Release by an indirect agonist is termed reverse transport and may require buildup of neurotransmitter in the nerve cytoplasm [...] Stimulants can act to stimulate presynaptic (CNS) or prejunctional (periphery) receptors for the neurotransmitter on nerve terminals to control release from those endings. These receptors are usually inhibitory and are marked as I (either NE, DA, or 5-HT inhibitory receptor) in Figure 1 and as α2 (inhibitory α2- adrenoceptor) in Figure 2, respectively. For instance, α2-adrenoceptors are present as autoreceptors on noradrenergic nerves and mediate an inhibition of NE release both in the periphery and CNS (see Figures 1 and 2).71 [...] Stimulants can act to stimulate, either directly or indirectly via increased release of the monoamine neurotransmitter, receptors for the neurotransmitter on nerves or effector cells situated postsynaptically/postjunctionally to the monoaminergic neuron. [...] Receptor-mediated actions of amphetamine and other amphetamine derivatives [...] may involve trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) at which amphetamine and MDMA also have significant potency.85–87 Many stimulants have potency at the rat TAAR1 in the micromolar range but tend to be about 5 to 10 times less potent at the human TAAR1, [...] Activation of the TAAR1 receptor causes inhibition of dopaminergic transmission in the mesocorticolimbic system, and TAAR1 agonists attenuated psychostimulant abuse-related behaviors.89 It is likely that TAARs contribute to the actions of specific stimulants to modulate dopaminergic, serotonergic, and glutamate signaling,90 and drugs acting on the TAAR1 may have therapeutic potential.91 In the periphery, stimulants such as MDMA and cathinone produce vasoconstriction, part of which may involve TAARs, although only relatively high concentrations produced vascular contractions resistant to a cocktail of monoamine antagonist drugs.86
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 Vaughan RA, Henry LK, Foster JD, Brown CR (2024). "Post-translational mechanisms in psychostimulant-induced neurotransmitter efflux". Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 99. Elsevier. hlm. 1–33. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.003. ISBN 978-0-443-21933-7. ISSN 1054-3589. PMID 38467478. The characteristics and mechanisms of efflux are complex and incompletely understood, and have been summarized in many comprehensive reviews including (Reith & Gnegy, 2020; Robertson, Matthies, & Galli, 2009; Sitte & Freissmuth, 2015). [...] Early studies implicating protein phosphorylation in AMPH-evoked DA efflux were performed by Giambalvo, who demonstrated that DAT-mediated uptake of AMPH impacted the activity and subcellular localization of protein kinase C (PKC) with characteristics that correlated with DA efflux (Giambalvo, 1992), and Gnegy and colleagues, whose many studies reinforced the relationship between efflux, kinases, and ionic conditions including PKC, PKCβ, Ca2+, and Ca1+-calmodulin regulated protein kinase (CaMK) (Gnegy et al., 2004; Johnson, Guptaroy, Lund, Shamban, & Gnegy, 2005; Kantor, Hewlett, & Gnegy, 1999). [...] With respect to DAT most studies have focused on PKC, CaMK, and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), but many other signaling and kinase pathways have been implicated in efflux mechanisms for all of the MATs (Bermingham & Blakely, 2016; Vaughan & Foster, 2013). [...] DAT phosphorylation stimulated by AMPH or METH also occurs on this domain and is blocked by PKC inhibitors (Cervinski et al., 2005; Karam et al., 2017), indicating the capacity of the drugs to involve the PKC pathway. How this occurs is not known, but could potentially follow from drug perturbation of local ion/Ca2+ concentrations that impact PTM enzymes, or alternatively could occur by substrate-driven induction of transporter conformations in which phosphorylation sites become more or less available to enzyme action. [...] There are many other Ser and Thr residues on DAT intracellular loops and domains that may serve as phosphorylation sites, and in vitro studies have demon- strated phosphorylation of N— and C—terminal peptide sequences by many kinases in addition to PKC, ERK, and CaMK that have been implicated in regulation and efflux including protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase G (PKG), casein kinase 2 (CK2), p38 kinase, JNK2, Cdk5, and Akt1 (Gorentla I et al., 2009; Vaughan & Foster, 2013). [...] The regulatory, efflux, and post-translational characteristics of NET and SERT show many similarities to DAT that indicate conservation of mechanism, but also some distinct properties that reflect requirements of specific neuronal populations. [...] With respect to efflux there are many similarities between SERT, NET, and DAT that indicate conservation of mechanisms.
- 1 2 3 Schmitt KC, Reith ME (Februari 2010). "Regulation of the dopamine transporter: aspects relevant to psychostimulant drugs of abuse". Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1187: 316–340. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05148.x. PMID 20201860. However, another significant question remains: how might amphetaminergic substrates activate PKC in the first place? PKC activity is regulated by Ca2+ and diacylglycerol, a phospholipid metabolite generated in concert with inositol triphosphate by the enzyme phospholipase C (PLC), which is also Ca2+ dependent. [...] Usually, PLC is activated by agonist binding at GPCRs coupled to the Gq/11- type α-subunit; however, compounds, such as amphetamine and methamphetamine, lack significant affinity for GPCRs other than the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a Gs-coupled receptor.74 [...] Interestingly, inhibition of the Na+/Ca2+ antiporter with amiloride also blocked amphetamine-induced PKC activation, suggesting that the ionic effects of DAT substrate translocation can directly influence activation of intracellular signaling cascades. When substrates are transported across the plasma membrane via the DAT, sodium ions are cotransported, and this increase in intracellular sodium concentration may cause Na+/Ca2+ antiporters at mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum membranes to operate in reverse, favoring a net flux of Ca2+ into the cytosolic compartment. [...]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Steinkellner T, Montgomery TR, Hofmaier T, Kudlacek O, Yang JW, Rickhag M, et al. (Mei 2015). "Amphetamine action at the cocaine- and antidepressant-sensitive serotonin transporter is modulated by αCaMKII". J Neurosci. 35 (21): 8258–8271. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4034-14.2015. PMC 4444546. PMID 26019340. Amphetamine-induced transport reversal at the closely related dopamine transporter (DAT) has been shown previously to be contingent upon modulation by calmodulin kinase IIα (αCaMKII). Here, we show that not only DAT, but also SERT, is regulated by αCaMKII. Inhibition of αCaMKII activity markedly decreased amphetamine-triggered SERT-mediated substrate efflux in both cells coexpressing SERT and αCaMKII and brain tissue preparations. [...] Moreover, we found that genetic deletion of αCaMKII impaired the locomotor response of mice to [MDMA] and blunted d-fenfluramine-induced prolactin release, substantiating the importance of αCaMKII modulation for amphetamine action at SERT in vivo as well. SERT-mediated substrate uptake was neither affected by inhibition of nor genetic deficiency in αCaMKII.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Bermingham DP, Blakely RD (Oktober 2016). "Kinase-dependent Regulation of Monoamine Neurotransmitter Transporters". Pharmacol Rev. 68 (4): 888–953. doi:10.1124/pr.115.012260. PMC 5050440. PMID 27591044.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Støier JF, Konomi-Pilkati A, Apuschkin M, Herborg F, Gether U (Agustus 2023). "Amphetamine-induced reverse transport of dopamine does not require cytosolic Ca2". J Biol Chem. 299 (8) 105063. doi:10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105063. PMC 10448275. PMID 37468107. [...] AMPH is a substrate of DAT and causes nonexocytotic efflux of DA by reversing the direction of transport via DAT through a yet not fully understood mechanism (4–7). To improve our insights into AMPH-induced efflux with a focus on the unsettled role of Ca2+, we establish here a novel approach enabling simultaneous assessment of DA efflux and intracellular signaling pathways by live fluorescent imaging of cultured DA midbrain neurons. [...] our data provide strong evidence that AMPH-induced DA efflux via DAT in DArgic neurons does not require Ca2+ but primarily relies on the concerted action of AMPH on VMAT2 and DAT. [...] [...] Summarized, we employ a live imaging approach enabling parallel monitoring of DA efflux and activation of intracellular signaling pathways in cultured DArgic neurons. Our data reveal in the neurons profound AMPH-induced DA efflux that strikingly neither requires Ca2+ signaling nor activation of the kinases PKC and CaMKIIα. However, the efflux depends on both the activity of VMAT2 and DAT, substantiating the unequivocal concerted importance of both transporters for the pharmacological action of AMPH on DArgic neurons. [...]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Miller GM (Maret 2012). "Avenues for the development of therapeutics that target trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1)". J Med Chem. 55 (5): 1809–1814. doi:10.1021/jm201437t. PMC 3618978. PMID 22214431. Although a detailed and rigorous description of the regional distribution of TAAR1 protein and mRNA expression has yet to be accomplished, it is established that TAAR1 protein and mRNA are expressed in monoaminergic brain regions.3,16,26 In our laboratory, we exploited our prowess with assessing changes in kinetic activity of the dopamine transporter (DAT), norepinephrine transporter (NET) and serotonin transporter (SERT) to assess TAAR1 functionality. Because many of the identified ligands that activate TAAR1 are also substrates at the monoamine transporters and TAAR1 localization in transfected cells was shown to remain largely intracellular,4 we had reasoned early on that monoamine transporters could serve as conduits for TAAR1 agonists to enter cells, thereby providing access of the agonist to an intracellular pool of TAAR1 receptors. We speculated that if this were the case there could be a special relationship between TAAR1 and monoamine transporters because they share some of the same ligands. Indeed, we observed substantially enhanced CRE-luciferase signaling in transfected cells that co-expressed both TAAR1 and a monoamine transporter (DAT, NET or SERT).9,16 Because monoamine transporter kinetic regulation and internalization is a consequence of upregulated cellular phosphorylation cascades,27,28,29 we reasoned that the enhanced TAAR1 signaling could in turn trigger changes in the kinetic activity of the monoamine transporters under conditions of co-localization. This too was born out in a series of studies from our laboratory which demonstrated that TAAR1 activation drives the PKA and PKC cellular signaling cascades that result in inhibition of monoamine uptake and transporter reversal (efflux) in DAT/TAAR1, NET/TAAR1 and SERT/TAAR1 co-transfected cells in vitro, as well as in mouse and primate striatal (DAT, SERT) and thalamic (NET) synaptosomes ex vivo.22,23,24,25,30 TAAR1 specificity for mediation of the observed kinetic effects on the monoamine transporters was further confirmed in these studies by demonstrating the absence of noncompetitive effects of the trace amine beta-phenylethylamine (β-PEA),23 the common biogenic amines,24 and methamphetamine25 on uptake inhibition and substrate-induced monoamine efflux in synaptosomes generated from TAAR1 knockout mice. Accordingly, specific drugs that target TAAR1 will likely result in alterations in monoamine kinetic function and brain monoamine levels via this mechanism.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 Miller GM (Januari 2011). "The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity". Journal of Neurochemistry. 116 (2): 164–176. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x. PMC 3005101. PMID 21073468. In a later study, Xie and Miller (2009a) resolved this issue by demonstrating that methamphetamine could induce [3 H]dopamine efflux in DAT cells or in TAAR1 knockout mouse striatal synaptosomes when the cells or synaptosomes were loaded with high concentrations of [ 3 H]dopamine (1 μM or higher), indicating that the direct effect of methamphetamine on the dopamine transporter to cause [3 H]dopamine efflux is dependent on the pre-loading concentration of [3 H]dopamine. But the efflux caused by methamphetamine under these conditions in DAT cells was not associated with either the PKA or the PKC phosphorylation pathways whereas it was blocked by methylphenidate. Further studies showed that TAAR1-mediated effects of methamphetamine on [3 H]dopamine efflux occurred at both lower and higher (1 μM) loading concentrations of [ 3 H]dopamine in TAAR1-DAT cells or in wild type mouse striatal synaptosomes, which could be blocked not only by methylphenidate but also by the PKC inhibitor Ro32-0432 (Xie and Miller 2009a). At the higher loading concentration, there was a greater amount of efflux observed in the presence of TAAR1 (in TAAR1-DAT cells or wild-type mouse striatal synaptosomes) than in its absence (in DAT cells or TAAR1 knockout mouse striatal synaptosomes), and it was only this relative greater amount of efflux that was sensitive to PKC inhibition. Accordingly, the TAAR1-mediated effects of methamphetamine on [3 H]dopamine efflux are dependent on PKC phosphorylation, whereas an observed TAAR1-independent, PKC-independent efflux occurs when cells or synaptosomes are loaded with high concentrations of [ 3 H]dopamine. [...] In a different mouse line, Lindemann et al. (2008) reported that TAAR1 knockout mice show an increased locomotive response to d-amphetamine after a single application of either 1 or 2.5 mg/kg. The increased locomotion correlated with a two- to threefold increase in extracellular dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the TAAR1 knockout mice as compared with wild-type mice. [...] In further studies, electrophysiological analysis of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of TAAR1 knockout and wild-type mice revealed that the spontaneous firing rate of dopaminergic neurons was 8.6-fold higher in the TAAR1 knockout mice, and that activation of TAAR1 by 10 μM p-tyramine decreased the firing rate of dopaminergic neurons in wild type mice but not in TAAR1 knockout mice (Lindemann et al. 2008).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Grandy DK, Miller GM, Li JX (Februari 2016). ""TAARgeting Addiction"--The Alamo Bears Witness to Another Revolution: An Overview of the Plenary Symposium of the 2015 Behavior, Biology and Chemistry Conference". Drug Alcohol Depend. 159: 9–16. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.014. PMC 4724540. PMID 26644139.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Jing L, Li JX (Agustus 2015). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1: A promising target for the treatment of psychostimulant addiction". Eur J Pharmacol. 761: 345–352. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.06.019. PMC 4532615. PMID 26092759. In both wild-type and Taar 1-/- mice, amphetamine produced a robust increase in striatal release of DA, norepinephrine (NE), and serotonin (5-HT), but this effect was significantly greater in Taar 1-/- mice than in wild type mice (Lindemann et al., 2008; Wolinsky et al., 2007). These findings support the notion that TAAR 1 functionally operates as a negative modulator of monoaminergic neurotransmission. [...] amphetamine had no effect on the release of DA and NA in the NAc of Taar 1 Tg mice, which partially explains the finding that amphetamine-induced a weaker locomotor hyperactivity in Taar 1 Tg mice as compared to their wild type counterparts. [...] There are evidence that TAAR 1 can modulate DAT function in in vitro cell culture experiments. Xie et al reported that β-phenethylamine (β-PEA) inhibited uptake and induced efflux of monoamines in thalamic synaptosomes of rhesus monkeys and wild-type mice, but not in synaptosomes of Taar 1-/- mice. Furthermore, the effect of β-PEA on efflux was blocked by transporter inhibitors in either the transfected cells or wild-type mouse synaptosomes (Xie and Miller, 2008). They also found that methamphetamine inhibited DA uptake, enhanced dopamine efflux, and induced DAT internalization by acting as a TAAR 1 agonist (Xie and Miller, 2009). However, more recent studies show inconsistent results. Leo et al. found that the DA clearance was not changed in Taar 1-/- mice as compared to their wild type counterparts (Leo et al., 2014), suggesting that the DAT function remained intact. In addition, no significant changes of dopamine uptake were observed in slices from Taar 1-/- mice, suggesting that the effect of TAAR 1 activation on DA-related function is independent of DAT (Leo et al., 2014). These apparent discrepancies may be attributable to the assays and tissues used in the studies. Xie et al. used mouse and monkey cellular synaptosome preparations with tissues from putamen and thalamus (Xie and Miller, 2008) while Leo et al. used fast scan cyclic voltammetry to measure DA uptake in mouse striatal slices (Leo et al., 2014). [...] Taar 1-/- mice displayed a behavioral phenotype of supersensitivity to amphetamine and cocaine, as evidenced by drug-induced increases in both locomotor activity and rearing as compared with wild-type littermates (Lindemann et al., 2008; Wolinsky et al., 2007). In contrast, Taar Tg mice responded to amphetamine in an opposite manner and showed a reduced and delayed response to amphetamine as compared with wild-type mice, indicating that Taar Tg mice are hyposensitive to amphetamine (Revel et al., 2012a). Methamphetamine also produced similar behavioral outcome in Taar 1-/- mice (Achat-Mendes et al., 2012).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Miner N (2019). The Modulatory Role of TAAR1 in Neurotoxicity of Substituted Amphetamines (Tesis). unav. hlm. 33–34. doi:10.6083/qf85nb81p. A significant body of in vitro research has investigated TAAR1 modulation of DAT, primarily by the Miller laboratory. [...] Functionality of DAT is also modulated by TAAR1 as application of DA inhibited [3H]DA uptake and induced [3H]DA release in TAAR1/DAT cells compared to cells only expressing DAT (Xie and Miller, 2007; Xie et al., 2008b). [...] However, it has been argued the conduction of this research in vitro diminishes its validity. Administration of β-PEA or the TAAR1 agonist RO5166017 diminishes hyperlocomotion in DAT-KO mice, indicating activation of TAAR1 functions independently of DAT (Sotnikova et al., 2004; Revel et al., 2011). This theory is bolstered by FSCV experiments. Evoked DA release and uptake, measured by Tau and half-life, are the same between genotypes. DA overflow is greater in the NAc of Taar1-KO than -WT mice, attributed to increased basal DA levels, but DA uptake is still the same between genotypes (Leo et al., 2014). Similarly, the partial TAAR1 agonist RO5203648 diminishes cocaine-induced DA overflow in the NAc without altering DA uptake, also indicating a DAT-independent mechanism (Pei et al., 2014). Further research is needed to better elucidate the interaction between TAAR1 and DAT.
- 1 2 Halff EF, Rutigliano G, Garcia-Hidalgo A, Howes OD (Januari 2023). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) agonism as a new treatment strategy for schizophrenia and related disorders". Trends Neurosci. 46 (1): 60–74. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2022.10.010. PMID 36369028. A study using the TAAR1-specific antagonist EPPTB showed that presynaptic blockade of TAAR1 reversed its ability to inhibit the firing rate of VTA dopaminergic neurons, which it normally brings about by activating inwardly rectifying potassium channels [45,48]. An increase in firing rates upon blocking TAAR1 with EPPTB suggests that TAAR1 is either constitutively active or under constant tonic activation from endogenous agonists. [...] A presynaptic interaction between TAAR1 and DAT function has also been suggested because some groups found evidence in cell culture that TAAR1 agonists inhibit DAT function via TAAR1 and D2AR [49,50,65]. Others find, however, that the effects of TAAR1 agonists and antagonist are unaltered in Dat−/− knockout mice, and that dopamine reuptake is unaffected by application of TAAR1 (ant)agonists or in TAAR1-KO animals [46,47]. One hypothesis that could unite the apparently conflicting findings is that TAs exert an inhibitory effect directly on DAT; indeed, PEA administration induces transient hyperlocomotion in mice, similar to the behaviour observed in Dat−/− animals [30]. More recent work suggests that TAAR1 activation mediates internalisation of DAT through regulating RhoA activity [53].
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Miner NB, Phillips TJ, Janowsky A (Oktober 2019). "The Role of Biogenic Amine Transporters in Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Regulation of Methamphetamine-Induced Neurotoxicity". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 371 (1): 36–44. doi:10.1124/jpet.119.258970. PMC 6750185. PMID 31320495. Previous research on TAAR1 modulation of DAT function has produced equivocal findings. In vitro, MA inhibits [3H]DA uptake, and [3H]DA release is increased in striatal tissue from Taar1 WT compared with KO mice (Xie and Miller, 2009). Similar findings were described in cells cotransfected with TAAR1 and DAT, compared with cells transfected only with DAT, in which MA-induced [3H]DA uptake inhibition and release were increased (Xie and Miller, 2007, 2009). However, these findings indicate MA-induced impairment of DAT function is increased when TAAR1 is activated, as opposed to in vivo treatment with AMPH or MDMA, by which striatal extracellular DA levels are increased when TAAR1 is not activated (Wolinsky et al., 2007; Lindemann et al., 2008; Di Cara et al., 2011). We were unable to replicate the results of Xie and Miller (2009) under similar in vitro conditions (Fig. 3). There was no difference in IC50 values for [3H]DA uptake inhibition by MA between synaptosomes from Taar1 WT and KO mice. [...] our results do not support an earlier hypothesis that TAAR1 modulates DAT (Xie and Miller, 2007, 2009; Xie et al., 2008b), as there was no evidence of an interaction under conditions described above. Recent reports support our findings that the DAT is unaffected by TAAR1. Coadministration of MA and the TAAR1 partial agonist RO523648 did not alter [3H]DA uptake and release in striatal synaptosomes in rats (Cotter et al., 2015). Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry showed no difference in DA clearance, as mediated by DAT, in striatal tissue from Taar1 WT compared with KO mice (Leo et al., 2014). [...] Given the lack of interaction, DAT is an improbable mediator of TAAR1 regulation of MA-induced neurotoxicity. [...] activation of TAAR1 did not modulate in vitro MA-impairment of DAT function or DAT expression. As TAAR1 activation did not alter the function or expression of DAT in whole synaptosomes or VMAT2 located on membrane-associated vesicles, these results indicate TAAR1 does not interact with these transporters on the plasma membrane but does affect intracellular VMAT2 function.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Leo D, Mus L, Espinoza S, Hoener MC, Sotnikova TD, Gainetdinov RR (Juni 2014). "Taar1-mediated modulation of presynaptic dopaminergic neurotransmission: role of D2 dopamine autoreceptors". Neuropharmacology. 81: 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.02.007. PMID 24565640. Importantly, we have documented that neither Tau nor the half-life of released DA are changed in slices from TAAR1-KO animals, indicating that TAAR1-KO mice exhibit unaltered DA uptake ability and thereby normal dopamine transporter (DAT) functionality. It is believed that Tau and the half-life of released DA are reliable measures for detecting changes in DA uptake because they are strongly correlated with changes in the Km of DAT mediated DA uptake (Yorgason et al., 2011). Thus, these neurochemical in vivo studies, as well as previous demonstrations of the functional activity of TAAR1 ligands in mice lacking the DAT (Sotnikova et al., 2004; Revel et al., 2012a), provide little support for the postulated role of TAAR1 in modulating DAT activity that is based mostly on in vitro cell culture experiments (Miller et al., 2005; Xie et al., 2008; Miller, 2011). [...] Notably, neither [the TAAR1 agonist (RO5166017) nor the TAAR1 antagonist (EPPTB)] changed the kinetics of DA uptake as evidenced by the Tau and DA half-life estimations, indicating that DAT-mediated function is not altered by the action of the drugs on TAAR1.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Di Cara B, Maggio R, Aloisi G, Rivet JM, Lundius EG, Yoshitake T, et al. (November 2011). "Genetic deletion of trace amine 1 receptors reveals their role in auto-inhibiting the actions of ecstasy (MDMA)". J Neurosci. 31 (47): 16928–16940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2502-11.2011. PMC 6623861. PMID 22114263.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Lewin AH, Miller GM, Gilmour B (Desember 2011). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 is a stereoselective binding site for compounds in the amphetamine class". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 19 (23): 7044–7048. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.007. PMC 3236098. PMID 22037049. While our data suggest a role for TAAR1 in eliciting amphetamine-like stimulant effects, it must be borne in mind that the observed in vivo effects are likely to result from interaction with both TAAR1 and monoamine transporters. Thus it has been shown that the selective TAAR1 agonist RO5166017 fully prevented psychostimulant-induced and persistent hyperdopaminergia-related hyperactivity in mice.42 This effect was found to be DAT-independent, since suppression of hyperactivity was observed in DAT-KO mice.42 The collected information leads us to conclude that TAAR1 is a stereoselective binding site for amphetamine and that TAAR1 activation by amphetamine and its congeners may contribute to the stimulant properties of this class of compounds. [...] it has been shown that β-PEA and methamphetamine effects in cells expressing TAAR-DAT significantly exceed those observed in cells expressing DAT only. Consistent with this conclusion is the higher potency of (S)-[amphetamine] in rat synaptosomes relative to cloned human DAT cells (EC50 60 nM vs 240 nM).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Jîtcă G, Ősz BE, Tero-Vescan A, Vari CE (Maret 2021). "Psychoactive Drugs-From Chemical Structure to Oxidative Stress Related to Dopaminergic Neurotransmission. A Review". Antioxidants. 10 (3): 381. doi:10.3390/antiox10030381. PMC 8000782. PMID 33806320. The DAT vs SERT ratios of synthetic cathinones are presented in Table 1. [...] Table 1. In vitro dopamine and serotonin uptake transporter inhibition (IC50 values) and release data (EC50 values). [...] The DAT vs SERT ratios of amphetamine derivatives and cocaine are presented in Table 2. [...] Table 2. In vitro dopamine and serotonin uptake transporter inhibition (IC50 values) and release data (EC50 values). [...] * in vitro studies for neurotransmitter reuptake inhibition and release using HEK293 (Human Embryonic Kidney 293) cell line expressing DAT and SERT (IC50 and EC50 values are expressed in μM). [(Note: HEK293 cells lack TAAR1 expression: "HEK-293 cells do not express TAAR1 (Reese et al., 2007; Xie and Miller, 2007)" (Small et al., 2023 [doi:10.1124/jpet.122.001573]).)]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Gainetdinov RR, Hoener MC, Berry MD (Juli 2018). "Trace Amines and Their Receptors". Pharmacol Rev. 70 (3): 549–620. doi:10.1124/pr.117.015305. PMID 29941461.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Simmler LD, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2016). "In Vitro Characterization of Psychoactive Substances at Rat, Mouse, and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1" (PDF). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 357 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.229765. PMID 26791601. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 9 Mei 2025.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Grandy DK (Desember 2007). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1-Family archetype or iconoclast?". Pharmacol Ther. 116 (3): 355–390. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.06.007. PMC 2767338. PMID 17888514. [AMPH and METH] promote DA release from synaptic storage vesicles into the cytoplasm (Partilla et al., 2006) and then into the extracellular space via DAT with an EC50 of 25 nM and a Ki uptake in rat synaptosomes of 34 nM (Rothman et al., 2001). These are drug concentrations approximately 20-30 fold lower than the EC50 values Reese et al. (2007) calculated for eliciting an in vitro functional response from rTAAR1 (0.8 μM). However, experienced METH users can typically consume gram quantities of drug per day (Kramer et al., 1967) and achieve peak blood concentrations of 100 μM (Derlet et al., 1989; Baselt, 2002; Peters et al., 2003). [...] The extracellular free concentration of METH surrounding relevant human dopaminergic synapses in the brain presumably is the relevant pharmacodynamic parameter, at least in part, underlying the desirable effects of the drug. Although this value is not known with certainty for humans METH serum levels typically represent one tenth of what is found in rat brain (Riviere et al., 2000). Consequently, when considered together with the human forensic evidence the in vitro results of Reese et al. (2007) are consistent with the interpretation that in vivo the human TAAR1 is likely to be a mediator of at least some of METH's effects.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Reese EA, Bunzow JR, Arttamangkul S, Sonders MS, Grandy DK (April 2007). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 displays species-dependent stereoselectivity for isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, and para-hydroxyamphetamine". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 321 (1): 178–186. doi:10.1124/jpet.106.115402. PMID 17218486. The EC50 of (+)-AMPH to release DA via DAT is 25 nM, with Ki uptake values in rat synaptosomes for this neurotransmitter of 34 nM at the DAT, concentrations approximately 20- to 30-fold lower than the EC50 values we calculated for eliciting an in vitro functional response from rTAAR1 (0.8 μM). Chronic METH abusers can typically consume gram quantities of drug per day (Kramer et al., 1967). [...] plasma concentrations of both drugs can reach into the high-micromolar range (Drummer and Odell, 2001; Baselt, 2002; Peters et al., 2003). Although the extracellular free concentration of METH around relevant human dopaminergic synapses presumably involved in producing desirable CNS effects is not known with certainty, in rats METH serum levels are typically 1/10 what is found in brain (Riviere et al., 2000). Forensic evidence indicates that experienced METH users can typically achieve peak blood concentrations of 100 μM (Baselt, 2002; Peters et al., 2003). Both isomers of METH were full agonists of h-rChTAAR1 over a range of EC50 values from 3.5 to ~15 μM, concentrations often exceeded in the blood of human METH addicts (Derlet et al., 1989). If TAAR1s, whether expressed in the CNS or periphery, are exposed to such concentrations, it is possible they could become functionally activated. [...] Given that the EC50 values for METH and AMPH activation of the h-rChTAAR1 in vitro are well below the concentrations frequently found in addicts, we suggest that TAAR1 might be a potential mediator of some of the effects of AMPH and METH in humans, including hyperthermia and stroke.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Espinoza S, Gainetdinov RR (2014). "Neuronal Functions and Emerging Pharmacology of TAAR1". Taste and Smell. Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. Vol. 23. Cham: Springer International Publishing. hlm. 175–194. doi:10.1007/7355_2014_78. ISBN 978-3-319-48925-4. Interestingly, the concentrations of amphetamine found to be necessary to activate TAAR1 are in line with what was found in drug abusers [3, 51, 52]. Thus, it is likely that some of the effects produced by amphetamines could be mediated by TAAR1. Indeed, in a study in mice, MDMA effects were found to be mediated in part by TAAR1, in a sense that MDMA auto-inhibits its neurochemical and functional actions [46]. Based on this and other studies (see other section), it has been suggested that TAAR1 could play a role in reward mechanisms and that amphetamine activity on TAAR1 counteracts their known behavioral and neurochemical effects mediated via dopamine neurotransmission.
- ↑ Grandy DK, Miller GM, Li JX (Februari 2016). ""TAARgeting Addiction"--The Alamo Bears Witness to Another Revolution: An Overview of the Plenary Symposium of the 2015 Behavior, Biology and Chemistry Conference". Drug Alcohol Depend. 159: 9–16. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.014. PMC 4724540. PMID 26644139. That TAAR1 signaling is coupled to the inhibition of VTA DA neuron firing was a surprising finding. [...] earlier data suggested that TAAR1 activation leads to inhibition of DA uptake by DAT, promotion of DA efflux by DAT and DAT internalization which presumably would augment extracellular DA levels, whereas inhibition of DA neuronal firing rate would likely decrease extracellular DA levels, [...] this mismatch in expectations immediately attracted the attention of those trying to determine whether TAAR1 is a METH/AMPH and DA receptor in vivo as it is in vitro (Bunzow et al., 2001; Wainscott et al., 2007; Xie and Miller, 2009; Panas et al., 2012).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE (Oktober 2018). "Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine" (PDF). ACS Chem Neurosci. 9 (10): 2408–2427. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155. PMC 6197894. PMID 30001118. [...] it is unclear if TAAR1 plays any role in the effects of MDMA in humans, as MDMA does not activate human TAAR1 in cellular assays like it does mouse and rat TAAR1.84
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Liu J, Wu R, Li JX (Maret 2020). "TAAR1 and Psychostimulant Addiction". Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology. 40 (2): 229–238. doi:10.1007/s10571-020-00792-8. PMC 7845786. PMID 31974906. Beside the TAAR1-KO mice, animals that overexpress taar1 in the brain were also generated, which was named as taar1 Tg mice (Revel et al. 2012a). Before discussing the behaviors of this line of taar1 Tg mice, it should be kept in mind that taar1 was expressed in all types of neurons in the whole brain of this mice strain, which is in contrast with the specific expression pattern of that in the wildtype animals (Revel et al. 2012a). The electrophysiological results showed that excitatory and inhibitory inputs into the VTA were altered in the taar1 Tg mice (Revel et al. 2012a). Interestingly, although the basal levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) were elevated, amphetamine did not alter dopamine levels in the taar1 Tg mice (Revel et al. 2012a). Consistently, behavioral test showed that AMPH led to hyperactivity in WT but not in taar1 Tg mice (Revel et al. 2012a).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Small C, Cheng MH, Belay SS, Bulloch SL, Zimmerman B, Sorkin A, et al. (Agustus 2023). "The Alkylamine Stimulant 1,3-Dimethylamylamine Exhibits Substrate-Like Regulation of Dopamine Transporter Function and Localization". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 386 (2): 266–273. doi:10.1124/jpet.122.001573. PMC 10353075. PMID 37348963. [...] a proposed intracellular target for amphetamine is the [TAAR1], a [GPCR] that is expressed on intracellular membranes in DA neurons (Miller, 2011). Phenethylamine stimulants have been proposed to activate TAAR1, leading to increased cAMP generation and RhoA activation, with subsequent enhancement of DAT reverse transport and endocytosis (Xie and Miller, 2007, 2008, 2009; Underhill et al., 2021). Methamphetamine-induced DAT endocytosis was found to be dependent on TAAR1 expression and PKA activity as suggested by use of the kinase inhibitor H89 (Xie and Miller, 2009). However, evidence indicating that amphetamine-induced endocytosis is independent of TAAR1 includes 1) HEK-293 cells do not express TAAR1 (Reese et al., 2007; Xie and Miller, 2007) but do exhibit amphetamine-induced DAT endocytosis [present studies and (Saunders et al., 2014; Cheng et al., 2015; Wheeler et al., 2015)]; 2) cAMP and PKA activation, which are stimulated by TAAR1, antagonized amphetamine-induced DAT endocytosis in heterologous cells and DA neurons [present studies and (Wheeler et al., 2015)]; and 3) in cell lines and rodent striatal synaptosomes, PKA activation increased DAT Vmax, consistent with increased plasma membrane expression (Pristupa et al., 1998; Page et al., 2004; Batchelor and Schenk, 2018). Additionally, DMAA induced DAT endocytosis (Figs. 3 and 4) despite exhibiting no activity at human TAAR1 in receptor binding studies (Rickli et al., 2019). Therefore, although some evidence does support a role of TAAR1 in modulating amphetamine-induced DAT endocytosis, the present studies suggest that DMAA and amphetamine promote DAT endocytosis through a TAAR1-independent mechanism.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Xu Z, Li Q (Maret 2020). "TAAR Agonists". Cell Mol Neurobiol. 40 (2): 257–272. doi:10.1007/s10571-019-00774-5. PMC 11449014. PMID 31848873. Amphetamine might act on TAAR1 to activate Gαs pathway and phosphorylate monoamine transporter such as dopamine transporter (DAT), leading to its internalization and ceased transport (Bunzow et al. 2001; Miller 2011). Behaviorally, knockout of TAAR1 in mice leads to locomotor supersensitivity induced by amphetamine, although the connection to regulation of monoamine system is undetermined and needs further investigation (Achat-Mendes et al. 2012; Lindemann et al. 2008).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Reese EA (2008). Trace amine-associated receptor 1: a novel target of methamphetamine (Tesis). doi:10.6083/M4ZK5DNR. In a recent study it was reported that AMPH induced locomotor function of TAAR1 knockout mice was increased compared to the response of wild type mice (Lindemann et al., 2007). In addition, they reported a 2½ fold increase in dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin release, in response to AMPH, in TAAR1 knockout mice compared to wild type mice. These results are similar to the increase in DA and NE release reported in a study of another TAAR1 KO mouse (Wolinsky et al., 2007). These findings of increased DA release and increased locomoter effects in the TAAR1 KO are reconciled with the proposed model as follows. The increased DA release of the TAAR1 KO may be due to reduced DAT internalization. With more DAT (or NET or SERT) remaining at the cell surface, more neurotransmitters can be reverse exchanged upon application of AMPH. The increased DA release would also explain the increased locomotor activity of the KO vs WT. The WT TAAR1 cells would undergo DAT internalization as described in the model. With fewer surface transporters, less DA would be reverse exchanged resulting in less DA release compared to levels in the KO mice.
- ↑ Wu R, Li JX (Desember 2021). "Potential of Ligands for Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) in the Management of Substance Use Disorders". CNS Drugs. 35 (12): 1239–1248. doi:10.1007/s40263-021-00871-4. PMC 8787759. PMID 34766253. Moreover, while deletion of TAAR1 led to increased frequency of spontaneous firing frequency of serotonin neurons in brain slices [36], TAAR1 full agonists significantly inhibited the firing frequency in DRN serotonin neurons [28, 38]. [...] In vitro electrophysiological recordings showed a remarkable increase in the spontaneous firing rate of dopamine neurons in the VTA of TAAR1-KO mice [36]. While the endogenous TAAR1 agonist TYR decreased the firing rate of dopamine neurons in slices from WT mice, it had no effect in slices from TAAR1-KO mice [36]. [...] Similar to TYR, [the TAAR1 full agonist] RO5166017 reduced the firing rate of VTA dopamine neurons and DRN serotonin neurons in brain slices from WT but not TAAR1-KO mice, through the activation of K+-mediated outward current, which can be blocked by TAAR1 antagonist EPPTB [38]. [...] [The TAAR1 full agonist] RO5256390 decreased the firing frequency of VTA dopamine and DRN serotonin neurons in brain slices from WT but not TAAR1-KO mice, [...]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Simmler LD, Buser TA, Donzelli M, Schramm Y, Dieu LH, Huwyler J, et al. (Januari 2013). "Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro". Br J Pharmacol. 168 (2): 458–470. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02145.x. PMC 3572571. PMID 22897747. β-Keto-analogue cathinones also exhibited approximately 10-fold lower affinity for the TA1 receptor compared with their respective non-β-keto amphetamines. [...] Activation of TA1 receptors negatively modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission. Importantly, methamphetamine decreased DAT surface expression via a TA1 receptor-mediated mechanism and thereby reduced the presence of its own pharmacological target (Xie and Miller, 2009). MDMA and amphetamine have been shown to produce enhanced DA and 5-HT release and locomotor activity in TA1 receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice (Lindemann et al., 2008; Di Cara et al., 2011). Because methamphetamine and MDMA auto-inhibit their neurochemical and functional effects via TA1 receptors, low affinity for these receptors may result in stronger effects on monoamine systems by cathinones compared with the classic amphetamines.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Daberkow DP, Brown HD, Bunner KD, Kraniotis SA, Doellman MA, Ragozzino ME, et al. (Januari 2013). "Amphetamine paradoxically augments exocytotic dopamine release and phasic dopamine signals". J Neurosci. 33 (2): 452–463. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2136-12.2013. PMC 3711765. PMID 23303926. Drugs of abuse hijack brain-reward circuitry during the addiction process by augmenting action potential-dependent phasic dopamine release events associated with learning and goal-directed behavior. One prominent exception to this notion would appear to be amphetamine (AMPH) and related analogs, which are proposed instead to disrupt normal patterns of dopamine neurotransmission by depleting vesicular stores and promoting nonexocytotic dopamine efflux via reverse transport. This mechanism of AMPH action, though, is inconsistent with its therapeutic effects and addictive properties, which are thought to be reliant on phasic dopamine signaling. [...] These findings identify upregulation of exocytotic dopamine release as a key AMPH action in behaving animals and support a unified mechanism of abused drugs to activate phasic dopamine signaling. [...] Our results also raise the possibility that enhanced phasic dopamine signaling may underlie important clinical effects of AMPH. Modest activation of dopamine transients at the relatively low dose of 1 mg/kg used here may be an important action of medications that combine amphetamine salts (e.g., Adderall) used clinically (Joyce et al., 2007). Indeed, low doses of AMPH preserve and improve learning and behavioral performance (Mayorga et al., 2000; Wyvell and Berridge, 2000; Taylor and Jentsch, 2001; Zhang et al., 2003; Knutson et al., 2004). In contrast, high doses of AMPH can produce a behavioral profile similar to the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia (Featherstone et al., 2007; Lisman et al., 2008). [...] Thus, disrupting the tight temporal concurrence between dopamine transients and important external cues due to hyperactive phasic dopamine signaling may contribute to AMPH-induced psychosis (Featherstone et al., 2007).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Covey DP, Juliano SA, Garris PA (2013). "Amphetamine elicits opposing actions on readily releasable and reserve pools for dopamine". PLOS ONE. 8 (5) e60763. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...860763C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060763. PMC 3643976. PMID 23671560. While there is little debate that behavioral effects of this important psychostimulant are associated with a hyperdopamine state [3–6], the underlying mechanisms by which this condition manifests have been the subject of intense study. Two, what ostensibly appear to be mutually exclusive, views have emerged. On the one hand, AMPH enhances tonic dopamine signaling by reversing dopamine transporter (DAT) direction, leading to a non-exocytotic, action potential-independent type of release or efflux that is driven by vesicular depletion and the redistribution of dopamine to the cytosol [7,8]. On the other hand, AMPH enhances phasic dopamine signaling by promoting burst firing of dopamine neurons [9,10], inhibiting dopamine uptake [11,12], and upregulating vesicular dopamine release [13,14]. How AMPH concurrently activates tonic and phasic dopamine signaling, the two fundamental modes of communication used by dopamine neurons [15], yet elicits opposing actions on vesicular dopamine stores is perplexing and unresolved.
- ↑ Sambo DO, Lebowitz JJ, Khoshbouei H (Juni 2018). "The sigma-1 receptor as a regulator of dopamine neurotransmission: A potential therapeutic target for methamphetamine addiction". Pharmacol Ther. 186: 152–167. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.01.009. PMC 5962385. PMID 29360540.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Sambo DO, Lin M, Owens A, Lebowitz JJ, Richardson B, Jagnarine DA, et al. (Desember 2017). "The sigma-1 receptor modulates methamphetamine dysregulation of dopamine neurotransmission". Nat Commun. 8 (1) 2228. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.2228S. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02087-x. PMC 5738444. PMID 29263318. We found that σ1R activation prevents methamphetamine-induced, DAT-mediated increases in firing activity of dopamine neurons. In vitro and in vivo amperometric measurements revealed that σ1R activation decreases methamphetamine-stimulated dopamine efflux without affecting basal dopamine neurotransmission. Consistent with these findings, σ1R activation decreases methamphetamine-induced locomotion, motivated behavior, and enhancement of brain reward function. Notably, we revealed that the σ1R interacts with DAT at or near the plasma membrane and decreases methamphetamine-induced Ca2+ signaling, providing potential mechanisms.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Lam V (2017). "Identification and in vivo Characterization of a Potential TAAR1 Antagonist". TSpace. Diakses tanggal 13 Februari 2025. While no in vivo studies have been done with selective sigma 2 receptor ligands measuring amphetamine-mediated locomotor activity, it was found that sigma 2 receptor agonists potentiate amphetamine-mediated dopamine efflux in PC12 cells in vitro (Izenwasser et al., 1998; Weatherspoon and Werling, 1999). These in vitro results indicate that sigma 2 receptor agonists would potentiate amphetamine-, and potentially cocaine-mediated locomotor activity in vivo. Due to the lack of selective sigma 2 ligands, the precise mechanism of sigma 2 enhancement of dopamine release is not known. However, it has been postulated that sigma 2 activation leads to an increase in intracellular calcium, either through an interaction with the plasma membrane bound L-type calcium channels, or via the ER-bound IP3 ligand gated calcium channels (Zhang and Cuevas, 2002; Cassano et al., 2006, 2009). This increase in intracellular calcium is hypothesized to promote the activation of PKC, and therefore the phosphorylation of DAT, leading to an increase in extracellular dopamine (Derbez et al., 2002).
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Higgins GA, Fletcher PJ (Juli 2015). "Therapeutic Potential of 5-HT2C Receptor Agonists for Addictive Disorders". ACS Chem Neurosci. 6 (7): 1071–1088. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00025. PMID 25870913. The sampling of extracellular fluids using in vivo microdialysis provides a direct way to study drug effects on synaptic efflux of a neurotransmitter. Comparisons of dexfenfluramine and fluoxetine using this technique have revealed a significant difference between the effects of reuptake inhibition and release on extracellular 5-HT levels.34−36 For example, Tao et al.35 compared the effects of fluoxetine and dexfenfluramine on extracellular 5-HT in the hypothalamus, with the latter increasing basal 5-HT 6−16-fold, compared to 3-fold following fluoxetine (Figure 1A). These differences in magnitude reflect differences in the way that fluoxetine and dexfenfluramine elevate 5-HT. The ability of SSRIs to increase extracellular 5- HT is dependent on neuronal activity (i.e., impulse dependent) and is subject to autoreceptor feedback inhibition. In contrast, (dex)fenfluramine increases extracellular 5-HT by disrupting vesicular storage and promoting nonexocytotic release that is independent of both of these regulatory factors.36 [...] Figure 1. Comparison between a 5-HT releaser (dexfenfluramine) and SSRI (fluoxetine) on (A) extracellular 5-HT release sampled from rat hypothalamus, [...]
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Shulgin AT, Shulgin A (1991). Pihkal: A Chemical Love Story. Biography/science. Transform Press. ISBN 978-0-9630096-0-9. Diakses tanggal 18 Agustus 2024.
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Shulgin AT, Shulgin A (1997). Tihkal: The Continuation. Transform Press. ISBN 978-0-9630096-9-2. Diakses tanggal 18 Agustus 2024.
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Shulgin A, Manning T, Daley PF (2011). The Shulgin Index: Psychedelic Phenethylamines and Related Compounds. Vol. 1. Transform Press. ISBN 978-0-9630096-3-0.
- 1 2 Underhill SM, Hullihen PD, Chen J, Fenollar-Ferrer C, Rizzo MA, Ingram SL, et al. (April 2021). "Amphetamines signal through intracellular TAAR1 receptors coupled to Gα13 and GαS in discrete subcellular domains". Mol Psychiatry. 26 (4): 1208–1223. doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0469-2. PMC 7038576. PMID 31399635. Although the precise physiological role of TAAR1/G13-mediated DAT internalization remains to be established, it is likely that this pathway evolved to regulate the actions of endogenous amines including β-PEA, tyramine, 3-methoxytyramine, and DA. DA is a TAAR1 agonist (Fig. 1c) and recently, it was shown that the sustained elevation of extracellular DA seen following burst firing appears to be a consequence of DAT internalization by a Rho-dependent mechanism [51]. These results provide the first evidence that dopamine itself can act as a TAAR1 agonist to trigger transporter internalization in vivo. TAAR1 signaling also has the potential to serve as a sensor of cytoplasmic DA and its metabolites. At high cytosolic concentrations, DA becomes neurotoxic due to the formation of reactive oxygen species and quinones that can cause damage to the neuron [52]. Under normal conditions, DA transported through the DAT from the extracellular space is rapidly repackaged into synaptic vesicles or enzymatically metabolized. However, if cytoplasmic DA concentrations saturate these mechanisms, the reduction in surface levels of DAT mediated by TAAR1/G13 signaling may provide an additional means for maintaining free cytosolic DA below toxic levels.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Guillot TS, Miller GW (April 2009). "Protective actions of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) in monoaminergic neurons". Mol Neurobiol. 39 (2): 149–170. doi:10.1007/s12035-009-8059-y. PMID 19259829.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Mulvihill KG (Januari 2019). "Presynaptic regulation of dopamine release: Role of the DAT and VMAT2 transporters". Neurochem Int. 122: 94–105. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2018.11.004. PMID 30465801.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Goldstein DS, Kopin IJ, Sharabi Y (Desember 2014). "Catecholamine autotoxicity. Implications for pharmacology and therapeutics of Parkinson disease and related disorders". Pharmacol Ther. 144 (3): 268–282. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.06.006. PMC 4591072. PMID 24945828.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Angoa-Pérez M, Anneken JH, Kuhn DM (2017). "Neurotoxicology of Synthetic Cathinone Analogs". Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS). Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 32. hlm. 209–230. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_21. ISBN 978-3-319-52442-9. PMC 6100737. PMID 27753008. This flooding of the cytoplasm and synaptic space with the oxidatively labile DA is thought to be a critical first step in the neurotoxic cascade of the amphetamines [73]. These conditions of elevated concentrations of cytosolic monoamines could be further aggravated by inhibition of MAO [91]. Unlike amphetamines, mephedrone and methylone have little if any affinity for VMAT-2 [33]. Therefore, their lack of neurotoxicity could derive from an inability to promote the release of DA from storage vesicles into the cytoplasm.
- ↑ Kostrzewa RM (2022). "Survey of Selective Monoaminergic Neurotoxins Targeting Dopaminergic, Noradrenergic, and Serotoninergic Neurons". Handbook of Neurotoxicity. Cham: Springer International Publishing. hlm. 159–198. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15080-7_53. ISBN 978-3-031-15079-1.
- 1 2 Moratalla R, Khairnar A, Simola N, Granado N, García-Montes JR, Porceddu PF, et al. (Agustus 2017). "Amphetamine-related drugs neurotoxicity in humans and in experimental animals: Main mechanisms". Prog Neurobiol. 155: 149–170. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.011. hdl:10261/156486. PMID 26455459.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Baumeister AA (2021). "Is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder a Risk Syndrome for Parkinson's Disease?" (PDF). Harv Rev Psychiatry. 29 (2): 142–158. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000283. PMID 33560690. It has been suggested that the association between PD and ADHD may be explained, in part, by toxic effects of these drugs on DA neurons.241 [...] An important question is whether amphetamines, as they are used clinically to treat ADHD, are toxic to DA neurons. In most of the animal and human studies cited above, stimulant exposure levels are high relative to clinical doses, and dosing regimens (as stimulants) rarely mimic the manner in which these drugs are used clinically. The study by Ricaurte and colleagues248 is an exception. In that study, baboons orally self-administered a racemic (3:1 d/l) amphetamine mixture twice daily in increasing doses ranging from 2.5 to 20 mg/day for four weeks. Plasma amphetamine concentrations, measured at one-week intervals, were comparable to those observed in children taking amphetamine for ADHD. Two to four weeks after cessation of amphetamine treatment, multiple markers of striatal DA function were decreased, including DA and DAT. In another group of animals (squirrel monkeys), d/l amphetamine blood concentration was titrated to clinically comparable levels for four weeks by administering varying doses of amphetamine by orogastric gavage. These animals also had decreased markers of striatal DA function assessed two weeks after cessation of amphetamine.
- ↑ Asser A, Taba P (2015). "Psychostimulants and movement disorders". Front Neurol. 6: 75. doi:10.3389/fneur.2015.00075. PMC 4403511. PMID 25941511. Amphetamine treatment similar to that used for ADHD has been demonstrated to produce brain dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates, causing the damage of dopaminergic nerve endings in the striatum that may also occur in other disorders with long-term amphetamine treatment (57).
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Berman SM, Kuczenski R, McCracken JT, London ED (Februari 2009). "Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: a review". Mol Psychiatry. 14 (2): 123–142. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.90. PMC 2670101. PMID 18698321. Though the paradigm used by Ricaurte et al. 53 arguably still incorporates amphetamine exposure at a level above much clinical use,14,55 it raises important unanswered questions. Is there a threshold of amphetamine exposure above which persistent changes in the dopamine system are induced? [...]
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K (Februari 2013). "Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects". JAMA Psychiatry. 70 (2): 185–198. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277. PMID 23247506.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, et al. (September 2013). "Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 74 (9): 902–917. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08287. PMC 3801446. PMID 24107764.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Frodl T, Skokauskas N (Februari 2012). "Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 125 (2): 114–126. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x. PMID 22118249. S2CID 25954331. Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Pinterova N, Horsley RR, Palenicek T (2017). "Synthetic Aminoindanes: A Summary of Existing Knowledge". Front Psychiatry. 8 236. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00236. PMC 5698283. PMID 29204127.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Del Bello F, Sakloth F, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Glennon RA (September 2015). "Ethylenedioxy homologs of N-methyl-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-aminopropane (MDMA) and its corresponding cathinone analog methylenedioxymethcathinone: Interactions with transporters for serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine". Bioorg Med Chem. 23 (17): 5574–5579. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2015.07.035. PMC 4562428. PMID 26233799. The present findings with MDMA are consistent with our previous data [15,17] and those reported by Simmler et al. [4] and Eshleman et al. [23] who examined the effects of MDMA and related drugs in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells transfected with human SERT, DAT and NET. Thus, the molecular mechanism of action for MDMA at monoamine transporters is similar in rats and humans. On the other hand, the potency of (±)MDMA for releasing monoamines in rat brain synaptosomes shown here (i.e., 60–70 nM) is greater than its potency in transfected HEK cells (i.e., 1–20 μM). Such discrepancies in absolute potency could be related to species differences in drug responsiveness, differences in release assay methods employed, or the absence of important neuronal membrane proteins in non-neuronal HEK cells.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Nichols DE, Oberlender R, Burris K, Hoffman AJ, Johnson MP (November 1989). "Studies of dioxole ring substituted 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) analogues". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 34 (3): 571–576. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(89)90560-1. PMID 2623014.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Nichols DE (1994). "Medicinal Chemistry and Structure–Activity Relationships". Dalam Cho AK, Segal DS (ed.). Amphetamine and Its Analogs: Psychopharmacology, Toxicology, and Abuse. Academic Press. hlm. 3–41. ISBN 978-0-12-173375-9.
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- ↑ WO 2022/032147,Baggott M,"2-Aminoindane compounds for mental disorders or enhancement.",diterbitkan tanggal 10 February 2022, diberikan kepada Tactogen Inc.
- ↑ Hathaway BA, Nichols DE, Nichols MB, Yim GK (Mei 1982). "A new, potent, conformationally restricted analogue of amphetamine: 2-amino-1,2-dihydronaphthalene". J Med Chem. 25 (5): 535–538. doi:10.1021/jm00347a011. PMID 6123601.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Vekariya R (2012). "Towards Understanding the Mechanism of Action of Abused Cathinones". VCU Theses and Dissertations. doi:10.25772/AR93-7024.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 US 20240335414,Matthew J. Baggott&Sean Dalziel,"Specialized combinations for mental disorders or mental enhancement",diterbitkan tanggal 10 October 2024, diberikan kepada Tactogen Inc.
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- ↑ WOpatent 2023081306A1,Matthew J. Baggott,"Indolizine compounds for the treatment of mental disorders or mental enhancement",diterbitkan tanggal 11 May 2023, diberikan kepada Tactogen
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Catalani V, Prilutskaya M, Al-Imam A, Marrinan S, Elgharably Y, Zloh M, et al. (Februari 2018). "Octodrine: New Questions and Challenges in Sport Supplements". Brain Sci. 8 (2): 34. doi:10.3390/brainsci8020034. PMC 5836053. PMID 29461475.
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- ↑ Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D (2012). "Scientific Opinion on the Regulatory Status of 1,3-Dimethylamylamine (DMAA)" (PDF). European Journal of Food Research & Review. 2 (4): 93–100.
- ↑ Schlessinger A, Geier E, Fan H, Irwin JJ, Shoichet BK, Giacomini KM, et al. (September 2011). "Structure-based discovery of prescription drugs that interact with the norepinephrine transporter, NET". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108 (38): 15810–15815. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10815810S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106030108. PMC 3179104. PMID 21885739.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Decker AM, Blough BE, Rothman RB (2016). "Interrogating the Activity of Ligands at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain Synaptosomes". Neurotransmitter Transporters. Vol. 118. New York, NY: Springer New York. hlm. 41–52. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3765-3_3. ISBN 978-1-4939-3763-9.
- ↑ Rothman RB, Dersch CM, Baumann MH, Carroll FI, Partilla JS (1999). "Development of a High-Throughput Assay for Biogenic Amine Transporter Substrates". Problems of Drug Dependence 1999: Proceedings of the 61st Annual Scientific Meeting, The College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc (PDF). NIDA Res Monogr. Vol. 180. hlm. 1–476 (251). PMID 11680410. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal Agustus 5, 2023. The major goal of this study was to establish a high-throughput assay to detect [monoamine transporter substrates (SBSTs)] for use in a project to develop new drugs with dual activity as SBSTs of DAT and SERT. METHODS. Using minor modifications of published procedures, rat brain synaptosomes were preloaded with either [3H]DA, [3H]NE or [3H]5-HT. Test drugs were added and the reaction terminated by rapid filtration over Whatman GF/B filters. Release was quantified by counting how much tritium was retained on the filters. RESULTS. Using optimized conditions known SBSTs potently decreased retained tritium in a dose-dependent manner whereas known [uptake inhibitors (UIs)] were weak or ineffective. UIs shifted SBST inhibition curves to the right, consistent with antagonist-like activity. CONCLUSION. We have developed high throughput assays which detect SBSTs for the DA, 5-HT and NE transporters.
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Partilla JS, Dersch CM, Baumann MH, Carroll FI, Rothman RB (1999). "Profiling CNS Stimulants with a High-Throughput Assay for Biogenic Amine Transporter Substrates". Problems of Drug Dependence 1999: Proceedings of the 61st Annual Scientific Meeting, The College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc (PDF). NIDA Res Monogr. Vol. 180. hlm. 1–476 (252). PMID 11680410. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal Agustus 5, 2023. RESULTS. Methamphetamine and amphetamine potently released NE (IC50s = 14.3 and 7.0 nM) and DA (IC50s = 40.4 nM and 24.8 nM), and were much less potent releasers of 5-HT (IC50s = 740 nM and 1765 nM). Phentermine released all three biogenic amines with an order of potency NE (IC50 = 28.8 nM)> DA (IC50 = 262 nM)> 5-HT (IC50 = 2575 nM). Aminorex released NE (IC50 = 26.4 nM), DA (IC50 = 44.8 nM) and 5-HT (IC50 = 193 nM). Chlorphentermine was a very potent 5-HT releaser (IC50 = 18.2 nM), a weaker DA releaser (IC50 = 935 nM) and inactive in the NE release assay. Chlorphentermine was a moderate potency inhibitor of [3H]NE uptake (Ki = 451 nM). Diethylpropion, which is self-administered, was a weak DA uptake inhibitor (Ki = 15 µM) and NE uptake inhibitor (Ki = 18.1 µM) and essentially inactive in the other assays. Phendimetrazine, which is self-administered, was a weak DA uptake inhibitor (IC50 = 19 µM), a weak NE uptake inhibitor (8.3 µM) and essentially inactive in the other assays.
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Blough BE, Landavazo A, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Decker AM, Page KM, et al. (Juni 2014). "Hybrid dopamine uptake blocker-serotonin releaser ligands: a new twist on transporter-focused therapeutics". ACS Med Chem Lett. 5 (6): 623–627. doi:10.1021/ml500113s. PMC 4060932. PMID 24944732.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Maier J, Mayer FP, Brandt SD, Sitte HH (Oktober 2018). "DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Aminorex Analogues". ACS Chem Neurosci. 9 (10): 2484–2502. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00415. PMC 6287711. PMID 30269490.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Walther D, Shalabi AR, Baumann MH, Glennon RA (Januari 2019). "Systematic Structure-Activity Studies on Selected 2-, 3-, and 4-Monosubstituted Synthetic Methcathinone Analogs as Monoamine Transporter Releasing Agents". ACS Chem Neurosci. 10 (1): 740–745. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00524. PMC 8269283. PMID 30354055.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Mayer FP, Burchardt NV, Decker AM, Partilla JS, Li Y, McLaughlin G, et al. (Mei 2018). "Fluorinated phenmetrazine "legal highs" act as substrates for high-affinity monoamine transporters of the SLC6 family". Neuropharmacology. 134 (Pt A): 149–157. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.006. PMC 7294773. PMID 28988906.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 McLaughlin G, Baumann MH, Kavanagh PV, Morris N, Power JD, Dowling G, et al. (September 2018). "Synthesis, analytical characterization, and monoamine transporter activity of the new psychoactive substance 4-methylphenmetrazine (4-MPM), with differentiation from its ortho- and meta- positional isomers". Drug Test Anal. 10 (9): 1404–1416. doi:10.1002/dta.2396. PMC 7316143. PMID 29673128.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Phenylmorpholines and analogues thereof". Google Patents. 20 Mei 2011. Diakses tanggal 7 Desember 2024.
{{cite web}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Cozzi NV, Brandt SD, Daley PF, Partilla JS, Rothman RB, Tulzer A, et al. (Januari 2013). "Pharmacological examination of trifluoromethyl ring-substituted methcathinone analogs". Eur J Pharmacol. 699 (1–3): 180–187. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.11.008. PMC 3656655. PMID 23178523.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Cozzi NV, Daley PF, Evans DL, Partilla JS, Rothman RB, Ruoho AE, et al. (2011). "Trifluoromethyl ring-substituted methcathinone analogs: activity at monoamine uptake transporters". The FASEB Journal. 25 (S1). doi:10.1096/fasebj.25.1_supplement.1083.1. ISSN 0892-6638.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Shalabi AR (14 Desember 2017). Structure-Activity Relationship Studies of Bupropion and Related 3-Substituted Methcathinone Analogues at Monoamine Transporters. VCU Scholars Compass (Tesis). doi:10.25772/M4E1-3549. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2024.
{{cite thesis}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 "Norfenfluramine to treat dravet syndrome". Google Patents. 9 Maret 2023. Diakses tanggal 7 Desember 2024.
{{cite web}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Shalabi AR, Walther D, Baumann MH, Glennon RA (Juni 2017). "Deconstructed Analogues of Bupropion Reveal Structural Requirements for Transporter Inhibition versus Substrate-Induced Neurotransmitter Release". ACS Chem Neurosci. 8 (6): 1397–1403. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00055. PMC 7261150. PMID 28220701.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Carroll FI, Blough BE, Mascarella SW, Navarro HA, Lukas RJ, Damaj MI (2014). "Bupropion and bupropion analogs as treatments for CNS disorders". Emerging Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse. Adv Pharmacol. Vol. 69. hlm. 177–216. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00005-6. ISBN 978-0-12-420118-7. PMID 24484978.
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- ↑ Kohut SJ, Fivel PA, Blough BE, Rothman RB, Mello NK (Oktober 2013). "Effects of methcathinone and 3-Cl-methcathinone (PAL-434) in cocaine discrimination or self-administration in rhesus monkeys". Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 16 (9): 1985–1998. doi:10.1017/S146114571300059X. PMID 23768644.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Wee S, Anderson KG, Baumann MH, Rothman RB, Blough BE, Woolverton WL (Mei 2005). "Relationship between the serotonergic activity and reinforcing effects of a series of amphetamine analogs". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 313 (2): 848–854. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.080101. PMID 15677348. S2CID 12135483.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Negus SS, Baumann MH, Rothman RB, Mello NK, Blough BE (April 2009). "Selective suppression of cocaine- versus food-maintained responding by monoamine releasers in rhesus monkeys: benzylpiperazine, (+)phenmetrazine, and 4-benzylpiperidine". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 329 (1): 272–281. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.143701. PMC 2670586. PMID 19151247.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 Baumann MH, Walters HM, Niello M, Sitte HH (2018). "Neuropharmacology of Synthetic Cathinones". New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 252. hlm. 113–142. doi:10.1007/164_2018_178. ISBN 978-3-030-10560-0. PMC 7257813. PMID 30406443.
{{cite book}}:|journal=diabaikan - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Sakloth F (11 Desember 2015). Psychoactive synthetic cathinones (or 'bath salts'): Investigation of mechanisms of action. VCU Scholars Compass (Tesis). doi:10.25772/AY8R-PW77. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2024.
{{cite thesis}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bonano JS, Banks ML, Kolanos R, Sakloth F, Barnier ML, Glennon RA, et al. (Mei 2015). "Quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis of the pharmacology of para-substituted methcathinone analogues". Br J Pharmacol. 172 (10): 2433–2444. doi:10.1111/bph.13030. PMC 4409897. PMID 25438806.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Fitzgerald LR, Gannon BM, Walther D, Landavazo A, Hiranita T, Blough BE, et al. (Maret 2024). "Structure-activity relationships for locomotor stimulant effects and monoamine transporter interactions of substituted amphetamines and cathinones". Neuropharmacology. 245 109827. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109827. PMC 10842458. PMID 38154512.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Nicole L (2022). "In vivo Structure-Activity Relationships of Substituted Amphetamines and Substituted Cathinones". ProQuest. Diakses tanggal 5 Desember 2024. FIGURE 2-6: Release: Effects of the specified test drug on monoamine release by DAT (red circles), NET (blue squares), and SERT (black traingles) in rat brain tissue. [...] EC50 values determined for the drug indicated within the panel. [...]
{{cite web}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Brandt SD, Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Kavanagh PV, Power JD, Talbot B, et al. (2014). "Characterization of a novel and potentially lethal designer drug (±)-cis-para-methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4'-DMAR, or 'Serotoni')". Drug Testing and Analysis. 6 (7–8): 684–695. doi:10.1002/dta.1668. PMC 4128571. PMID 24841869.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Huang X, Marona-Lewicka D, Nichols DE (Desember 1992). "p-methylthioamphetamine is a potent new non-neurotoxic serotonin-releasing agent". Eur J Pharmacol. 229 (1): 31–38. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(92)90282-9. PMID 1473561.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Sotomayor-Zárate R, Quiroz G, Araya KA, Abarca J, Ibáñez MR, Montecinos A, et al. (Desember 2012). "4-Methylthioamphetamine increases dopamine in the rat striatum and has rewarding effects in vivo". Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 111 (6): 371–379. doi:10.1111/j.1742-7843.2012.00926.x. PMID 22788961.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Simmler LD, Rickli A, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2014). "Monoamine transporter and receptor interaction profiles of a new series of designer cathinones". Neuropharmacology. 79: 152–160. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.008. PMID 24275046.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Glennon RA, Dukat M (2017). "Structure-Activity Relationships of Synthetic Cathinones". Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS). Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 32. hlm. 19–47. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_41. ISBN 978-3-319-52442-9. PMC 5818155. PMID 27830576.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 McLaughlin G, Morris N, Kavanagh PV, Power JD, Twamley B, O'Brien J, et al. (Juli 2015). "Synthesis, characterization, and monoamine transporter activity of the new psychoactive substance 3',4'-methylenedioxy-4-methylaminorex (MDMAR)". Drug Testing and Analysis. 7 (7): 555–564. doi:10.1002/dta.1732. PMC 5331736. PMID 25331619.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fantegrossi WE, Gannon BM (September 2024). "A "Furious" Effort to Develop Novel 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-Like Therapeutics". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 391 (1): 18–21. doi:10.1124/jpet.124.002183. PMID 39293859.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 "Advantageous benzofuran compositions for mental disorders or enhancement". Google Patents. 8 Desember 2022. Diakses tanggal 21 November 2024.
{{cite web}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Davies RA, Baird TR, Nguyen VT, Ruiz B, Sakloth F, Eltit JM, et al. (Juni 2020). "Investigation of the Optical Isomers of Methcathinone, and Two Achiral Analogs, at Monoamine Transporters and in Intracranial Self-Stimulation Studies in Rats". ACS Chem Neurosci. 11 (12): 1762–1769. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00617. PMC 10019599. PMID 32356961.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Nguyen V (2019). "Analyzing Interactions Between Methcathinone Analogs and the Human Monoamine Transporters". VCU Theses and Dissertations. doi:10.25772/T1DW-MG60.
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{{cite thesis}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Blough B, Landavazo T, Partilla JS, Page KM, Rothman RB (Juni 2007). The Biogenic Amine Transporter Properties of Selected Shulgin Tryptamines (Abstract 50). 69th CPDD Annual Scientific Meeting. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada: College on Problems of Drug Dependence.
{{cite conference}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 Yadav BJ (16 Juli 2019). Understanding Structure–Activity Relationship of Synthetic Cathinones (Bath Salts) Utilizing Methylphenidate. VCU Scholars Compass (Tesis). doi:10.25772/MJQW-8C64. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2024.
{{cite thesis}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Yu H, Rothman RB, Dersch CM, Partilla JS, Rice KC (Desember 2000). "Uptake and release effects of diethylpropion and its metabolites with biogenic amine transporters". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 8 (12): 2689–2692. doi:10.1016/s0968-0896(00)00210-8. PMID 11131159.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Lehner KR, Thorndike EB, Hoffman AF, Holy M, et al. (Maret 2013). "Powerful cocaine-like actions of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a principal constituent of psychoactive 'bath salts' products". Neuropsychopharmacology. 38 (4): 552–562. doi:10.1038/npp.2012.204. PMC 3572453. PMID 23072836.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Liu Y (28 Maret 2018). "Structural Determinants for Inhibitor Recognition by the Dopamine Transporter". Duquesne Scholarship Collection. Diakses tanggal 11 Desember 2024. The most commonly studied DAT substrates are amphetamines, including amphetamine and methamphetamine (Fig. 9). S-(+)-amphetamine releases dopamine with an EC50 of 8.7 nM; the R-(−)-amphetamine is 3-fold weaker, at 27.7 nM (EC50) (Blough, Page et al. 2005). Although weaker, a similar trend is seen for the optical isomers of methamphetamine. S-(+)-methamphetamine releases dopamine with an EC50 of 24.5 nM, while the R-(−)-methamphetamine is 16-fold less active at 416 nM (EC50) (Blough, Page et al. 2005). [...] Blough, B. E., K. M. Page, et al. (2005). "Struture-activity relationship studies of DAT, SERT, and NET releasers." New Perspectives on Neurotransmitter Transporter Pharmacology.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Hughes Z, Klein A, Austin E, Dvorak D, Gatti S, Kiss L, et al. (Desember 2022). "ACNP 61st Annual Meeting: Poster Abstracts P1 - P270: P254. Gm-2505 is a Novel 5-Ht2a Receptor Agonist and 5-Ht Releaser That Induces Rapid, Robust, and Durable Antidepressant Effects at Doses Associated With Decreased Power in Low Frequency EEG Bands in Rats". Neuropsychopharmacology. 47 (Suppl 1): 63–219 (209–209). doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01484-1. PMC 9714397. PMID 36456693.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Hatfield MG, Johnson RA, Murphy KV, Janowsky A (Juni 2013). "Substituted methcathinones differ in transporter and receptor interactions". Biochem Pharmacol. 85 (12): 1803–1815. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2013.04.004. PMC 3692398. PMID 23583454.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, et al. (Oktober 2003). "In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 307 (1): 138–145. doi:10.1124/jpet.103.053975. PMID 12954796. S2CID 19015584.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 Schindler CW, Thorndike EB, Partilla JS, Rice KC, Baumann MH (Januari 2021). "Amphetamine-like Neurochemical and Cardiovascular Effects of α-Ethylphenethylamine Analogs Found in Dietary Supplements". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 376 (1): 118–126. doi:10.1124/jpet.120.000129. PMC 7788351. PMID 33082158.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Reed JF, Kim SO, Johnson RA, Janowsky A (Desember 2018). "Neurochemical pharmacology of psychoactive substituted N-benzylphenethylamines: High potency agonists at 5-HT2A receptors". Biochem Pharmacol. 158: 27–34. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2018.09.024. PMC 6298744. PMID 30261175.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Luethi D, Kaeser PJ, Brandt SD, Krähenbühl S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (Mei 2018). "Pharmacological profile of methylphenidate-based designer drugs" (PDF). Neuropharmacology. 134 (Pt A): 133–140. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.08.020. PMID 28823611.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Rothman RB, Blough BE, Woolverton WL, Anderson KG, Negus SS, Mello NK, et al. (Juni 2005). "Development of a rationally designed, low abuse potential, biogenic amine releaser that suppresses cocaine self-administration". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 313 (3): 1361–1369. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.082503. PMID 15761112. S2CID 19802702.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Mayer FP, Wimmer L, Dillon-Carter O, Partilla JS, Burchardt NV, Mihovilovic MD, et al. (September 2016). "Phase I metabolites of mephedrone display biological activity as substrates at monoamine transporters". Br J Pharmacol. 173 (17): 2657–2668. doi:10.1111/bph.13547. PMC 4978154. PMID 27391165.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Kohut SJ, Jacobs DS, Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Bergman J, Blough BE (Desember 2017). "Cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of "norepinephrine-preferring" monoamine releasers: time course and interaction studies in rhesus monkeys". Psychopharmacology. 234 (23–24): 3455–3465. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4731-5. PMC 5747253. PMID 28889212.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 Glennon RA, Young R (5 Agustus 2011). "Drug Discrimination and Mechanisms of Drug Action". Drug Discrimination. Wiley. hlm. 183–216. doi:10.1002/9781118023150.ch6. ISBN 978-0-470-43352-2. PMMA is a 5-HT releasing agent. S(+)PMMA is a potent releaser of 5-HT (EC50 = 41 nM) and NE (EC50 = 147 nM) with reduced activity as a releaser of DA (EC50 = 1,000 nM); the R(−)isomer of PMMA is a releaser of 5-HT (EC50 = 134 nM) with reduced potency for release of NE (EC50 = 1,600 nM) and DA (EC50 > 14,000 nM) (R.B. Rothman, unpublished data).
{{cite book}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rothman RB, Katsnelson M, Vu N, Partilla JS, Dersch CM, Blough BE, et al. (Juni 2002). "Interaction of the anorectic medication, phendimetrazine, and its metabolites with monoamine transporters in rat brain". European Journal of Pharmacology. 447 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1016/s0014-2999(02)01830-7. PMID 12106802.
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{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Baumann MH, Ayestas MA, Dersch CM, Partilla JS, Rothman RB (September 2000). "Serotonin transporters, serotonin release, and the mechanism of fenfluramine neurotoxicity". Ann N Y Acad Sci. 914 (1): 172–186. Bibcode:2000NYASA.914..172B. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05194.x. PMID 11085319.
{{cite journal}}: Pemeliharaan CS1: Tanggal diterjemahkan otomatis (link) - ↑ Chojnacki MR, Thorndike EB, Partilla JS, Rice KC, Schindler CW, Baumann MH (Juni 2023). "Neurochemical and Cardiovascular Effects of 4-Chloro Ring-Substituted Synthetic Cathinones in Rats". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 385 (3): 162–170. doi:10.1124/jpet.122.001478. PMC 10201577. PMID 36669877.
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